Recruitment, Selection, Performance Appraisal Essay

Recruitment Finding the right people for the job is one challenge all managers and organizations share. While managers may have the ability to redesign or adjust jobs to fit the available people, the usual challenge is the reverse. Thus, a first important step in the recruitment, selection, and placement process is undertaking a job analysis. This helps ensure you know what the employee must know and do (job requirements) and under what circumstances. There are several common mistakes one can make in the recruitment phase, including: †¢Restricting the pool of qualified candidates by using a poor search strategy and/or approach. An example is exclusive reliance on either internal or external recruitment no matter the position or available candidates. Another is failing to include a good array of sources to ensure a strong â€Å"talent pool.† †¢Writing a position description that does not match the job. This happens most frequently when there has been no careful analysis of the job and/or when there is no second level review of the analysis to help ensure accuracy. †¢Writing position postings/advertisements that are overly broad or are inappropriately restrictive. An example is when everything in a posting is â€Å"preferred† or everything is â€Å"required.† For those who are hiring managers the issue of whether to recruit/promote from within (internal recruiting) will likely be a familiar one. There are numerous advantages, including development of â€Å"career ladders† that help with employee retention. Simply put, a career ladder is one that plans and enables advancement up the levels of an organization. Internal recruiting can also help organizations preserve and protect critical knowledge, values, and practices. Transitions can be smoother, with less negative impact on productivity. Look more:  recruitment and selection process essay One thing organizations can and should do when wishing to leverage internal talent is to inventory the knowledge, skills, experiences, interests, and abilities of their employees. When the organization has the needed financial and technology resources, these can captured electronically in a knowledge management or human resource information system (HRIS). Performance appraisals, when done well, can also prove rich and useful sources of information about employee  interests and potential. An exclusive reliance on internal recruiting has its potential disadvantages. One is that there may be no one in the organization who has the knowledge and skills for either new initiatives or those where there is no room for downtime or training. Another is that it may be difficult for the organization to refresh its talent pool and learn by recruiting those with diverse knowledge, experiences, abilities, and perspectives. Selection Selecting the best candidate for a position is both a critical management function and one that can be difficult. It is useful to begin by recognizing that there is no failsafe method of ensuring the right choice is made. Mistakes happen regularly and the consequences for all parties can be enormous. As Bohlander & Snell (2009, p. 254) report the average cost of a mismatch has been estimated at anywhere from $20,000 to $100,000 for intermediate and senior positions. This is just the financial cost and does not consider the frequent emotional and even physical distress bad hiring decisions can have on the candidate, other employees, an organization and manager’s reputation, and beyond. As discussed in the section above, an important first step is to conduct a careful job analysis that provides as much information about what knowledge, skills, abilities, experiences, preferences, etc. will lead to success. Ensuring a good match between important organizational and candidate values is also a critical and sometimes forgotten factor. To illustrate this point, it is useful to envisage a candidate who is seeking an improved quality and balance in his/her personal life walking into an organization with â€Å"Whatever it takes!† posted strategically on the potential supervisor’s door. Cascio (2010) offers a good summary and discussion of the importance of ensuring reliability and validity of the information obtained during the selection and staffing process (see Chapter 7). The goal is to work to ensure sound and consistent judgments/results no matter the people, time, and/or tools used in the selection process. The risk in failing to attend to these concerns is not only a poor selection decision but also a possible legal challenge. You will find the overview on staffing and selection methods (Cascio, Chapter 7) and tools interesting and useful when preparing your week 5 assignm ent. Those who work for small firms might be surprised by the  array of tools and tests in current use. Some, like graphology (Cascio, p. 247), are not generally accepted by U.S. academic experts and others present sufficient problems (eg., polygraphs) they are either not used widely or are not viewed as reliable sources of information (eg., reference checks). Interviews remain an important selection method, with those that use a structured process viewed as most effective and appropriate. Those wanting a smile during your research and writing process should read the â€Å"Top Five Biggest Mistakes Candidates Make During Job Interviews.† And, of course, everyone will want to be sure to avoid illegal questions when conducting employment interviews. This resource serves as a useful reminder of what to avoid: http://employment.findlaw.com/employment/employment-employee-hiring/employment-employee-hiring-overview.html Employee Performance Appraisal Just these words can send a shiver down many if not most people’s spines! Even in modern organizations with well trained and resourced managers, it is safe to say that a large percentage do not like this part of their job and/or feel they do it poorly (on this, see Cascio citing Grensing-Pophal (2001) and Sandberg (2007)). One sad thing about this is that assessment and feedback are so important for improved performance and, ultimately, for creating a workplace where people want to be. Another is that so much is known about what to do and to avoid but this information does not seem to have found its way in a systematic or consumable format into the hands of practicing managers. Cascio provides a summary of what is known from the study of this subject and you can find much more in professional and scholarly management journals in the UMUC electronic databases. Of the numerous things to remember when evaluating the performance of an employee, three are critically important: â₠¬ ¢Evaluate only what is required to do the job †¢Ensure the employee has a written copy of expectations and standards at the beginning of the period when performance will be reviewed †¢Use observable and measurable standards – rely on evidence-based assessment AND maintain records (document †¦ document †¦ document!) (Bohlander & Snell, 2010, p.  369). Time is a frequent enemy of effective performance appraisals. There never seems to be enough of it to plan, prepare, meet, review, write, discuss, and follow up. Thus, it is common to cut corners. An example is waiting until the end of an evaluation cycle to discuss performance for the entire year. Sometimes that discussion never even happens and the entire process is handled as a paper/e-mail transaction. Imagine the message this sends to employees about their relative importance to the organization! Yet most of us who have been managers have probably both had this done to us and do it to others. Also often related to time shortages, managers and employees find themselves at the end of a review cycle with no concrete documentation to support their views. The potential for reliance on recent or certain events is great in such circumstances and this can result in unfair and/or inequitable reviews. Avoiding behavior is also quite common. Surprises are the consequence. Conflict, whether direct or indirect, is likely. A recommended standard is that there should be no surprises in a performance review discussion or document. Sometimes, this happens when those being evaluated are not good listeners but in many more cases, managers have not invested the time needed to plan for and then communicate expectations or provide timely feedback. Depending upon the method and process used, concerns about ensuring fairness and equity can occur and can serve as constraints on a good evaluation process and outcome. Imposed rating quotas and caps can cause this to happen, especially when they are either not known or are announced at the end of an evaluation period. As you systematically and critically analyze your performance assessment systems this week, you will find it useful to review carefully the information Cascio and other sources you find provide, being sure to objectively consider both strengths and possible limitations of the available alternatives. As you will see, there are no prescribed rules about who should be involved in the evaluation process and there is no single method that works for all organizations. People often think a 360-degree appraisal is optimal. If the organization and people are well prepared such a system can be great. If not, it can be, and often has been, a disaster. Speaking of which, there are numerous sources of potential error when conducting an appraisal. Cascio discusses some of them (halo error, contrast error, recency error) (pp. 356 – 357). If you have worked for a while in  different organizations it is quite likely you will have observed some of these in practice. They are both common and often difficult to avoid. Training, increased awareness, and self-management are important in avoiding and/or limiting the possible negative consequences of these rating errors. As Cascio writes, performance appraisal systems MUST have these characteristics: relevance, sensitivity, and reliability and SHOULD also be acceptable and practical (p. 335). A review of this discussion is strongly recommended. In my experience many systems fail on all counts. People are evaluated on factors not directly relevant to their success or that of the organization. It is difficult to differentiate between and among employees using the system and as a result everyone gets rated about the same. Different raters evaluating the same person and behavior arrive at different conclusions and the view of those more senior often prevails. Managers don’t really accept the system. And, finally, the system is so onerous everyone waits until the last possible minute to do this task hoping it will somehow make it more bearable. The three major types of performance assessment used in most organizations are those that focus on the following factors: a) Individual characteristics or traits b) Behaviors c) Results As Cascio explains, there are several methods that organizations and their managers use. You should discover the one that is the closest fit to the method used in your own organization. It is important to recognize that each method has advantages and disadvantages. While organizations may design and employ a hybrid, it is likely behaviors or results will be relatively more important when evaluating performance and determining consequences. It is common to hear arguments in favor of a results-based approach. There are, however, some essential preconditions for this to work. One is an understanding that this does not mean â€Å"results at any cost.† Another is to find a way to recognize those who may have a difficult time demonstrating how what they do on a daily basis contributes directly to organizational goals. This concern applies especially to those at lower levels in an organizational hierarchy. To summarize, designing and conducting effective performance appraisals is something all managers have to do, whether using a  formal or informal method. There are available alternatives and each has its pros and cons. The secrets to success are relatively simple: †¢Begin by establishing a common understanding of what is required to do the job. †¢Establish and carefully communicate expectations and standards for performance. †¢Set performance goals and milestones and monitor and discuss progress throughout the year. †¢Maintain good records.  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Avoid surprises.   Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Set aside sufficient time to plan and focus on each employee when meeting to discuss performance. †¢Treat employees with respect and remember to engage them in the process and recognize both accomplishments and areas needing improvement. †¢Use appraisal as an opportunity to examine and explore opportunities for future growth and development. †¢In other words, focus primarily on what will happen rather than what has happened. For those who are interested, this is a video that demonstrates what NOT to do during a performance review meeting: http://polaris.umuc.edu/cvu/amba602/home.html And here is one of several examples from the Web of a well organized and implemented appraisal meeting: ________________________________________ References Bohlander, G., & Snell, S. ( 2010). Managing human resources. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Cascio, W. (2010). Managing human resources: Productivity, quality of work life, profits. NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Written by: Christina A. Hannah, Ph.D.

Corrections Accreditation and Privatization Essay

â€Å"Corrections accreditation is intended to improve facility operations through adherence to clear standards relevant to all areas/operations of the facility, including safety, security, order, inmate care, programs, justice, and administration† (â€Å"American Correctional Association†, n.d.). Going through these types of processes can be very beneficial to a corrections officer’s development. Going through these procedures, the experience will assist them in keeping and maintaining a professional outlook in any situation. Correctional facilities are equipped with officers who are trained to not only keep everybody safe in the environment, but to maintain security and order at all times. These officers need to be professional just as anybody else would in any position within a job. Their development lies in improving their thought process and their skill at the job when necessary and changes occur almost every day. Industry leaders can make good changes when hiring corrections officers. A good way simply being when hiring staff, there is no tolerance for illegal activities. Making improvements in their training programs, if need be. In addition to those, upgrading the facility with better measures as far as security. All of the things covered when being audited can make a difference to planning for better future outcomes. Prisons for some time have been dealing with not only major financial situations in local, state, and federal governments, but overcrowding as well is a huge concern. â€Å"Privatization as it refers to prisons is to both the takeover of existing public facilities by private operators, and to the building and operation of new and additional prisons by for-profit prison companies† (Cheung, 2004). Due to the rising in state and federal population it is a concern to consider the all-around costs of incarceration, operation and management. It seems as though state and federal prisons have more of a professional practice, whereas a private institution might suffer because of demands, rising costs, conditions (depending on location), etc

A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, A Story of a Little Girl, Mary Frances Nolan

Betty Smith isn't well known for her many works, but the one book that almost everyone has heard about, is A Tree Grows in Brooklyn. In this novel she shows herself to be an author of great depth and knowledge; she gives us a peek into the complex human soul. This book gives great insight into life; it shows why many people strive to become someone better and how some people are able to move up to a better station in life even though there are tremendous odds and A Tree Grows in Brooklyn touches everyone's' hearts. It is about a little girl, Mary Frances Nolan (also known as Francie), growing up in the poorer part f Brooklyn with a drunken, singing waiter for a father. This father somehow always makes her feel so special and â€Å"normal†. She lives with her severely realistic mother, her father, and a brother(Neeley) who is privileged as the â€Å"favorite child†. Francie is treated poorly throughout school because she is so different and independent. Francie always kept to herself and was the silent studious type, which deepened the division between herself and the other of the At a very young age Francie learned how important money is as well as the division in society caused by money as well as education. Because of this division and Neeley's favoritism, Francie becomes the sole provider for the family after the her father's death. She goes to work straight after graduation from grade school and never gets to have the pleasure and luxury of a high school diploma, but that doesn't stop her from her dreams. Her dreams of moving up in the world, to a place were you don't have to worry about where your next meal comes from; a place where money doesn't necessarily make you rich. This may sound like a ridicules dream considering that today a high school diploma is mandatory for veryone. At this point in time; however, very few people, without wealth, were able to get a higher education or even be able to go to high school. Yet nothing can stop Francie from completing her dream. This wonderful book cuts right to the heart of life. It show the true American dream; the dream of higher education and a better and equal way of life for everyone. The novel tells this dream through one special girl who realizes that she can be and do better. If you don't read A Tree Grows in Brooklyn you will be denying yourself a rich experience of the true American dream.

English speaking and writing assessment the stress factors that affect teenagers

Do you remember when you were a teenager? Perhaps times have changed since then; nowadays there are about a hundred and one things that young adults have to stress about. Now you may be thinking that is another long rant by a moody teenager complaining about how unfair their life is, however it's not, this is such telling you the realities of what teenagers go through. One of the main issues is stereotyping, we cannot seem to go anywhere without at least one person stereotyping what our life and personality is like. Only 30% of typical stereotypes made on adolescents, such as drug abusing, shallow, rude or violent behaviour, are actually true. Whilst you might believe your teenage years were the golden years in your life, this is not the case for this generation's young adults, however many parents are oblivious to their teenage child's worries, insecurities and problems. Now imagine you're a fifteen year old girl, when you wake up in the morning you need to spend at least half an hour in front of the mirror, maybe even more on bad days, in front of the mirror. But you just cannot get your hair to be straight enough or for your stomach to look smaller. Once you arrive at school you have to face classmates â€Å"subtly† bitching about you like you do not even exist. It makes you feel even worse about yourself as you do not know what you have done wrong or how to make people like you. When lessons start and as per usual your teachers are comparing you to students in older years, pressurising you to do well in the tests and repeatedly reminding you that your GCSEs are drawing nearer. You just cannot escape this academic pressure set on you. They say that you should just do your best, however what if you're best is not good enough? What if your best does not make your parents proud of you? You hear your classmates telling each other how drunk they got at the weekend; you're wondering whether you're the only one who does not get invited to these parties and gets drunk with the rest of your class or the only one who has not gone far with a boy. This makes you hate yourself more and wish you could be anyone else, but you. Lunchtime arrives, and it's the same old dilemma in the canteen: sandwich or pizza? Cake or salad? How healthy is it? How much fat is there in it? How many calories does it contain? You're afraid to indulge, in case you gain weight, get called the class pig and become even more of a social reject. Then you get home, time to face your rude, obnoxious parents who try to understand what is going on in your mind, you want to scream at them everything that is worrying you and ask them for help but you know that they will not understand and will just be even more ashamed of you. They blame how you act towards them to hormones and bad attitude, when really it's down to them; their constant comparing, shouting and criticising. This is just a minute part of a teenage girl's life; now imagine you have to go through this every single day. The real difficult thing to grasp is however, is that issues much older people go through seem to be happening to younger and younger people. So just think before you judge or stereotype a teenager you see, think about what they could be going through and if you were in their shoes how you would be feeling.

Hans Hofmann in the Abstract and Nature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Hans Hofmann in the Abstract and Nature - Essay Example The main concept behind abstract art is based on the idea that art is not static, but rather interactive with its audience and the political and social ideas of the audience's present as well as the symbols inherent in the particular forms used within the artwork. By reducing the recognizable forms, therefore, it becomes possible for the artist to attain a more pure expression in his or her creation. Jean-Francois Lyotard argues that avant-garde art uses experimental innovations in technique and structure to attempt "to make visible that there is something which can be conceived and which can neither be seen nor made visible" (Lyotard, 1997: 78). As an abstract artist, Hofmann was known as a synthesist because he brought together traditional methods and avant-garde concepts concerning the nature of painting, largely based on the works of Modern painters Cezanne, Kandinsky and Picasso's Synthetic Cubism. Because teaching dominated much of his creative life, his art was often critically measured against his theories. With his European sensibilities and his newly adopted American spirit, it needs to be remembered that Hofmann's work exemplifies a fusion of multiple aspects of 20th century art. A look into his biography reveals the development of his ideas regarding nature and abstraction while a glimpse into his career reveals how his teaching reflected this conceptual development. Biography Hans Hofmann was born in 1880 near Munich, Germany in a small city called Weissenburg, Bavaria. Growing up, he was surrounded by images of the past as his city still retained many remains of its ancient Roman past and of the countryside, with the closest large city being Ingolstadt more than 30 miles away. While this doesn't seem that far away to a modern audience accustomed to the use of cars to drive to the city every day from far off suburbs, Hoffman grew up in a time when the automobile was just springing to life. The first practical working horseless carriage was created in 1889 in Germany by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, when Hofmann was already 9 years old (Ament, 2005). It is possible that Hofmann had a chance to experience some of the technologies that were being developed in association with the automobile, however, because his father moved the family to Munich when Hofmann was just 6 when he took a job working for the government. "Hofmann developed an interest in m athematics, science, music and art at a very early age. When he was sixteen, his father helped him obtain a job with the Bavarian government as the assistant to the director of public works. During this time, Hofmann further developed his technical knowledge of mathematics, even inventing and patenting an electromagnetic comptometer" ("Hans Hofmann", 2007). Despite this, Hofmann's interest in art was superior to his interest in mathematics and, when his father died in the late 1800s, Hofmann decided to pursue this interest in greater detail. By 1898, Hofmann was studying art at the Mortiz Heymann's art school in Munich, where he came into contact with

Work and Professional Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Work and Professional Development - Essay Example ting† on the basis of race, colour, gender or disability as opposed to â€Å"affirming† the entry of disadvantaged sections into colleges and institutes of higher education. The main point of contention is the perceived reduction in quality and compromise with merit that equality initiatives are supposed to bring to the organisation in a market economy. Since the very basis of any firm in a market economy is the assumption of merit and reliance on the structure that fosters a culture of meritocracy, the debate over the place on merit takes on an edge. What is apparent from the above is that firms in the current market economy have not really been doing enough to positively help the people. Instead they are just paying lip service to hiring and recruiting their employees from different backgrounds. As the following report from a newspaper in Wales shows, â€Å"Women with young children are more likely to be discriminated against at work than people with disabilities or from an ethnic minority group, a major UK equality report revealed yesterday. According to the Equalities Review, which was commissioned by Tony Blair, a mother with a child younger than 11 is 45% less likely to be employed than a man with a partner. The review has led to calls for businesses and employers in Wales to be more family-friendly and promote fairer employment practices. Chairman of the review Trevor Phillips, who is head of the new Commission for Equality and Human Rights, said inequality was still a major problem in the UK and was now preventing the majority of people from achieving their potential. The review revealed that, in a survey of recruitment agencies, more than 70% of the 122 companies had been asked by clients to avoid hiring women who were pregnant, or of childbearing age. The report fo und disabled people were 29% less likely to be in employment than non-disabled people, and that Pakistani and Bangladeshi women were 30% less likely to be in work than white women of similar

Economic issue Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Economic issue - Assignment Example This is counterproductive to the developing nations whicgh are increasingly implementing free and voluntary education and healthcare provision. This has led to civil unrest due to increasing unemployment and pay cut in an effort to restore IMF’s proposed economic targets. The interest paid back by the borrowers to IMF translates to increased taxation against constant wage rate leading to higher and unaffordable living standard. This forces the citizens to go on strike for increades wages and lower commodity prices. 3. a) There is no European Monetary Union without fiscal union. The micro-economic imbalance in Euro cannot be managed without fiscal union. It is efficiency.it will make the union stable satisfactory finances. The European Monetary Union makes the union greater. Fiscal union is a major move to create great political union. The federal bodies will be administered and a central tax would become a great idea in Europe. With fiscal union the European union will have a united stand, to stop Europe’s decline in global market, an economic union must be formed. This will result to fiscal union that will otherwise raise the Europe

Communication styles of JC Penny v. Sears Term Paper

Communication styles of JC Penny v. Sears - Term Paper Example Penny Company Inc. is one of the largest chains of American mid-range department stores, catalogue, and e-commerce retailers; with headquarters in Piano, Texas. It operates over 1, 100 departmental stores in U.S’s 50 states, Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico (JC Penney 2012). It also runs 49 Renner department stores in Brazil. J.C. Penny began as a partnership between James Cash Penney, Guy Johnson and Thomas Callahan on April 14, 1902. The three created two more stores. In 1907, Johnson and Callahan dissolved their partnership and Penney purchased full interest in all three locations. In order to be closer to banks and railroads, Penney moved his company headquarters to Salt Lake City, Utah in 1909. The stores expanded and by 1912, there were 34 stores in Rocky Mountain States. The following year, all the stores were consolidated under the name J.C. Penney with William Henry McManus as co-founder. The company’s expansion was mainly due to its diversity of products and affo rdability. After much struggle in the 1970s, following stiff competition from upstart companies such as Wal-Mart that sold goods at discounted prices, the company reverted to a fashion oriented marketing strategy in the 1980s. It also moved its headquarters from New York to Texas, which reduced operational costs. The company was the first to sell zero coupon bonds in the public market. JCP stores are mainly located in suburban shopping malls, which is strategic in its operations. With about 1100 stores in America’s 50 states as well as Puerto Rico and Mexico, it is the second largest department store retailer and the largest catalogue merchant in the America. J.C Penny mainly targets juniors. The company focuses on value-priced fashion with an emphasis on classification and key-items focussed merchandising. JC Penney focuses on its pricing vis-a-vis its competition. Also, it focuses on providing mid-tier fashions in the malls. Its stores are located in attractive markets, tha t attract customers. It increasingly incorporating Sephora inside its locations, aimed at upgrading customers’ experiences in the stores. For the year ending January 2012, the company made sales totalling $17,260.0M and realized an annual growth of 2.8%; its net income for the year amounting to $152.0M (JC Penny 2012). 1.1 Background of Sears Holdings Corporation Sears Holdings Corporation is America’s fourth largest broad-line retailer with over 4,000 full-line and specialty retail stores in the U.S. and Canada. Its headquarters are based in Hoffman Estates, Ill. It became a multi channel store when it opened its first store to complement its catalogue channel which was launched in 1886 (Sears 2009). It provides quality merchandise and exceptional service, leading in retail of appliances, tools, lawn and garden, consumer electronics, and automotive repair and maintenance. The company provides diversified products through a wide range of retail channels. It was crowned the 2011 Energy Star Retail Partner of the year. Its leading brands are mKenmore, Craftsman and Diehard along with broad apparel offering including well known labels as Lands’ End, Jaclyn Smith and Jose Boxer, the Apostrophe and Covington brands. It is the

Liverpool and Britain dependent on other countries Essay

Liverpool and Britain dependent on other countries - Essay Example Although the exact moment of globalization occurring in Liverpool is a highly debatable question considering the length of Britain’s history and its extensive involvement in world affairs, it could be send that the election of â€Å"New Labour† in 1997 marked the rapid acceleration of the period. With Tony Blair’s successful efforts to remake the formerly left-wing, anti-free trade Labour party into a pro-market moderate party, Britain decided to go full steam ahead with economic global integration. Britain got its economic act together just as globalization was accelerating, in the late 1980s. It has managed to catch and ride the current wave successfully, selling the world financial and business services where once it sold cotton textiles and machines. Shifting earlier and more decisively than most countries out of mass manufacturing, where it had few advantages over lower-cost competitors, to more easily defended high-value-added goods and services gave it an edge. Margaret Thatcher's painful union-bashing left Britain with flexible labour markets at a time when countries such as France and Germany are struggling with unbudgetable workers and high unemployment. Britain has always been a trading nation. Liverpool has been a central part of that history. Founded by King John in the 12 century, the city has been an important port for a very long time. In the 19th century it became, along with Manchester, the first two British cities connected by railway, allowing the quick transport of goods to market.

Small Business Appraisal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Small Business Appraisal - Essay Example However, there have been a number of Indian start ups in the domain, with quite a few bigger Indian business houses too throwing their hat in the fray. One of the most prominent start ups in foods and services retailing domain is Lite Bite Foods (LBF). LBF operates in the high growth segment of Quick Dining Restaurants (QDR) and Quick Restaurants (QR). It was founded by a group of High Networth Individuals and industry professionals, and has been funded by an Institutional Venture Capital firm. The firm has entered into strategic tie ups with a number of well known food brands, and is presently in the roll out phase. As per the company website, it already about half million square feet of retailing space under is management and is aggressively looking at adding more space. This small business was started to cater the need for fast food in Indian population. In the given project, the business as well as management of the business will be discussed after undertaking the theory of small business and entrepreneurship. ... ble for developing small businesses which were started by a single person, later on other family members like sons, relatives and friends might join with the owner which results in increase in the size of business. Many famous multinational business of today had started as a small business by a single owner. These examples act as motivations for millions of people to start their own small business. Even today the small business plays a vital role in gross domestic production in developed countries like US. As per a report published in September 2010, the multinational companies in US buy goods and services from more than 6,000 American small businesses that amount to $3 billion. This represents approximately 24 percent of the total buying done in US. Thus, these small enterprises are important partners of the US multinational companies. The government policies of US are also concerned for development of small business in America. As for example, the resent agreement of $ 1 billion fo r increasing new export by US firms will boost demand for goods and services and this will benefit the SMEs. As per the data, the small businesses are responsible for 99.7 percent that is $29.6 million business in US during 2008. Almost 49.6 percent of total payroll employment done in US is offered by small business. The young small business are important for creating new jobs as small business within the age of two years are accounted for creating 25 percent of new jobs in last few years (Business Roundtable, 2010, p.1-2). Not just in developed nations, even in emerging nations, the small businesses are important for the economy like China and India. There are several factors that influence small business growth in these markets. Among these factors, socio-economic condition, availability

Forensic Chemical Pathology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Forensic Chemical Pathology - Essay Example First is through the sublingual or (buccal) cavity where some drugs are administered into the body beneath the tongue or the cheek from where they are absorbed from the animal body into the human circulation system (Houck and Siegel, 2006). These drugs are also administered orally, this the most method used in drug administration into the body by many individuals. In addition, the drug can be introduced through rectal organ, a method mostly used in children (Houck and Siegel, 2006). Besides entrance organs, the drugs can also be administered through, parenteral routes that is, through intravenous injection, intra-arterial injection, inhalation, intramuscular injection and topically through the eye, skin and intra-vaginal parts. This is the process by which drug molecules passes from the administration site to the circulation system in the body of human being. This process applies to all forms of drug administration routes except through injections where drug is introduced directly into the blood system (Houck and Siegel, 2006). The absorption of the drug demands that absorption of drug should move from cell to cell through permeable membranes. The process of blood absorption takes place through passive diffusion into the circulatory system of the body. The rate at which the drug is absorbed into the body is always relative to the concentration of the drug taken (Houck and Siegel, 2006). These drugs absorption can therefore take place through lipid diffusion in the cells or by aqueous concentration of solution or by active method. Drug distribution, is the process by which the drug taken leaves the circulation system and moves into the tissues and organs of the body. This process is made possible by diffusion into interstitial fluid and other cells from the circulation. Besides drugs can be transported through active method in hepatic cells, from where they go through enzymatic biotransformation (Houck and Siegel,

EPI7005_2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

EPI7005_2 - Essay Example Such inhomogeneties may be a result in some imperfection within the magnet or magnetic susceptibility spatial variation of the object that is being imaged (Christ, 2000, p. 78). The spatial variation is normally referred to as susceptibility artifacts. EPI applied in most of protocols used in diffusion weighted acquisition uses a homogenous static field. Such a field does not normally hold for MRI head. The distortion that comes out of this is significant enough to even exceed ten millimeters. Such artifacts come in the way of accurate diffusion images alignment with structural MRI and are considered obstacles to the head MRI joint analysis of structure and connectivity. Some of the methods used for correction of magnetic susceptibility distortions include the use of a filed map. However, such methods of applying field maps are not reliable and accurate; hence, they do not result in reliable EPI alignment with structural images that correspond to it. The T2-weighted structural image approach that relies on EPI baseline image and still gives account of the susceptibility artifacts is the recommended approach (Edelman and Schmitt, 1994, p. 610). How accurate the reconstruction of the image is depends on the spin’s resonance frequency (rf) which is formed normally through a spatial linear gradient superposition and an external filed that is homogenous and strong. The above conditions have to meet failure to which the anatomical structures relative positions will end up being misrepresented in the MRI image reconstruction. A good example of this is a case in which a spin is presented to a magnetic field that is not the same as the expected value resulting from the magnetic susceptibility. In this case, the geometric distortions process will be witnessed from the MRI image (Reinsberg, Doran, Charles-Edwards, and Leach, 2005). When the spin is increased, it leads to the production of MRI signals whose intensity is relatively low while areas having high magneti c susceptibility experiencing total signal loss (Zhou and Gullapalli, 2006). Question 1A Several parameters have to be reduced in order to optimize EPI image, and they include: A. Reducing the time of echo train length: the longer the length of the echo train, the more time is required by the spin to gather phase error and the greater the distortion witnessed. One of the ways of minimizing the total time of train length is by minimizing the echo spacing. The less the time is taken by the frequency gradient in sampling the signal, the less the distortion will be witnessed as shown in figure 1. The period for sampling is normally during the flat readout gradient portion unless there is ramp sampling. In FSE, the less the ESP or the echo spacing is, the less the blurring of the image gets. In EPI, minimizing the echo spacing also results in a reduction in the blurring and geometric distortion. Figure 2. The sampling time and the read encoding gradient during normal gradient performance (McMahon, 2012) As the segmentation degree increases, the echo number acquired per rf excitation decreases. This in turn minimizes the geometric distortion as the phase error time of accumulation is reduced. Figure 3 below demonstrates the reduction in

Discuss healthcare systems organizational structure, financing, Assignment

Discuss healthcare systems organizational structure, financing, mission, vision, philosophy, and values - Assignment Example ciety as a whole and how the overall healthcare system is linked with other sectors of the economy to support and bolster the overall good of the society. (Skolnik, 2012, p.52) It is therefore clearly established that the overall goals, mission and vision of a healthcare system shall be focused upon delivering good health and generating and allocating financial resources fairly. The financial resources of the healthcare system therefore either are generated through the public funds or through public-private partnership arrangements along with self-funding through patients. It is however, critical to understand that overall organizational structure can also result into the restriction of the access to the healthcare providers. (Andersen, Vedsted, Olesen, Bro, & Ndergaard,2011). The concept of gatekeeping into the overall organizational structure of healthcare system is resulting into a change in the overall relationship between the healthcare providers and the patients. Since one of the components of the organizational structure is service delivery it is therefore critical that organizational structure shall not be the restricting factor in the overall delivery of efficient and effective healthcare services to the patients. Andersen, R. S., Vedsted, P., Olesen, F., Bro, F., & Ndergaard, J. S. (2011). Does the organizational structure of health care systems influence care-seeking decisions?A qualitative analysis of Danish cancer patients’ refl ections on care-seeking. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care,

Article Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Article Critique - Essay Example The mission of LEAD is to inspire students with excellent academic performance and leadership skills, and who come from different cultures, to pursue business careers. Data collection was triangulated through semi-structured interviews, field observations, and analysis of secondary documents. Analysis included initial coding, pattern coding, and creating a conceptual framework. Findings showed that the themes were: 1) rationales ranged from self-interest to altruism; 2) the rationales changed throughout time; 3) rationales differed in their level of straightforwardness; and 4) the dynamics of rationale building frequently transformed into significant programmatic differences. Siegel (2008) concluded that it is possible that the success of partnerships like LEAD relied on the interpretive work of its participants. He stressed that through their independent and collective interpretations of their rationales, they were able to work toward common goals. This article is related to public relations in education, because these educational institutions collaborated due to public relations needs, among others. Siegel (2008) discussed that organizations naturally pursued their own interests and considered their own benefits, even in collaborative circumstances (p.234). LEAD member corporations mentioned the most salient self-interested rationales, such as having access to talented minorities, pipeline expansion, the chance to generate â€Å"mind share† with a strategically significant group, attainment of market intelligence, constructive public relations, maximizing portfolio of other diversity-related efforts, and gaining a competitive advantage over rivals (Siegel, 2008, p.234). Connecting to communities and establishing public relations are some of the benefits that these organizations pursued (Siegel, 2008, p.234). In particular, the ethics of public relations concerned understanding their rationales and ensuring that their rationales will lead, neither them nor others, into harm. This article is valid, because it collects data through several measures, specifically: semi-structured interviews, field observations, and analysis of secondary documents. These diverse measures ensure that data can be validated and referenced through other sources of information. In essence, Siegel (2008) evaluated the difference between the rhetoric of rationale building and the sentiments of participants too. This article also presents convincing findings and conclusions, because the author did not overlook the interconnection between self-interests and collaboration. He did not undermine self-interest as an important factor in building collaborations and establishing public relations. This article is also relevant, because it explores the role of rationale building in forming pertinent collaborative efforts. The framing of rationales depends on how members understand their alliance and how they aim to promote their interests through this alliance. This pa per agreed with Siegel (2008) that the framing of rationales affects the tone and movement of the collaboration, because incompatible frames will inevitably obstruct commitment to goals and implementation. Indeed, the â€Å"ways in which participants conceive of and articulate their rationale, then, may have important implications for outcomes or judgments of value†

Biology of Androgens and Estrogens Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Biology of Androgens and Estrogens - Essay Example In the males androgens produced by the testes and adrenal cortex contribute to the male sex hormones circulating in the blood. Adrenal androgens normally have little physiological effect other than a role in development before the start of puberty in both girls and boys. This is because the male sex hormone activity of the adrenal androgens is weak. Androgens regulate male secondary sexual characteristics and can cause virilizing symptoms in women. Normally androgens are secreted mainly from the male testes, but moderate amount is also secreted from the adrenal gland. Normally adrenal androgens have a minimal effect in males whose sexual characteristics are predominately determined by gonadal steroids such as testosterone. On the contrary, in disease states in females, several androgen-like effects, such as, sexual hair, are largely mediated by adrenal androgens. The principal adrenal androgens are DHEA, androstenedione, and 11-hydroxyandrostenedione. DHEA and androstenedione are wea k androgens and exert their effects via conversion to the potent androgen testosterone in extraglandular tissues. DHEA also has poorly understood effects on the immune and cardiovascular systems. Adrenal androgen formation is regulated by ACTH, not by gonadotropins, thus are suppressed by exogenous glucocorticoid administration. The male reproductive system regulates sexual differentiation, virilization, and the hormonal changes that accompany puberty, ultimately leading to spermatogenesis and fertility. Under the control of the pituitary hormones, namely, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), the Leydig cells of the testes produce testosterone and germ cells are nurtured by Sertoli cells to divide, differentiate, and mature into sperm (Holdcraft, RW. and Braun, RE., 2004).. Estrogens Steroidal estrogens arise from androstenedione or testosterone by aromatization of the A ring. The reaction is catalyzed by a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase enzyme complex. The ovaries are the principal source of circulating estrogen in premenopausal women, with estradiol being the main secretory product. Gonadotropins, acting via receptors that couple to the Gs-adenylyl cyclase-cyclic AMP pathway, increase the activities of aromatase. The follicular theca cells, under control of LH, produce androgens that diffuse to the follicular granulosa cells, where they are converted to estrogens via an FSH-supported aromatization reaction. Estrogens are endogenous hormones that produce numerous physiological actions. In women, these include developmental effects, neuroendocrine actions involved in the control of ovulation, the cyclical preparation of the reproductive tract for fertilization and implantation, and major actions on mineral, carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism. Estrogens also have important actions in males, including effects on bone, spermatogenesis, and behavior. In postmenopausal women, the principal source of circulating estrogen is adipose tissue stroma, where estrone is synthesized from dehydroepiandrosterone secreted by the adrenals. In men, estrogens are produced by the testes, but extragonadal production by aromatization of circulating C19 steroids accounts for most circulating estrogens. Thus, the level of estrogens is regulated in part by the availability of androgenic precursors. Estrogenic effects most often have

The Leader Affects the Outcome of an Ethical Situation Essay

The Leader Affects the Outcome of an Ethical Situation - Essay Example The health provider and any other concerned person must respect any decision by the patient. The case of Eduardo Rosas Cruz, a 25-year-old tuberculosis patient, is an example of a patient that refused treatment, according to the principle of autonomy. The man who is from the northern California disappeared immediately he was diagnosed with tuberculosis (Fauria, 2014). He was arrested and taken to a medical center and kept under guard. The leader who is the health care provider influences the outcome by ordering the patient to remain in a hotel room under isolation. The patient violated the orders and escaped leading the health providers worried about the security of the uninfected. As a nurse leader, I would create a quarantine room in the hospital for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and offer quality services for those quarantined. The action will help the patient to feel comfortable and recover fast. I would also ensure that any other patient diagnosed with a similar disea se undergoes thorough counseling in the psychiatry department. American Nurses Association,. (2015). Short Definition s of Ethical Principles and Theories Familiar Words. What do they man. Retrieved 25 May 2015, from http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/EthicsStandards/Resources/Ethics-Definitions.pdf Fauria, K. (2014). Arrest Warrant Issued For Santa Barbara TB Patient. The Washington Times. 26 May 2015, from

The Benefits Of Diversity To British Society And As To How Such A Essay

The Benefits Of Diversity To British Society And As To How Such A Diverse Society May Cause Its Own Tension And Conflict - Essay Example The migration of people into Britain including work permit holders in 2003 was 119000. When the increase in the population was 2.2 million, 1.14 million was from abroad. Birmingham, Bradford, Leicester and Oldham have Pakistanis and Indians. French, Portuguese, Greeks, Poles and Zimbabweans make up smaller proportions of the foreign- born. However when the second generation who are citizens are considered, the number just swells (Wood et al, 2006, p. 2). The debate on the diversity issue is an ongoing one. Originally the issues dwelled on how many people Britain could accommodate as new citizens. The conservative right viewed immigration as a threat to the national perspective (Banting and Will, 2004). Tensions are possible in 2 situations: the â€Å"heterogeneity/redistribution† tension and the recognition/ redistribution. In the first, social policies are difficult to implement because of the difficulty in eliciting trust and national solidarity among the ethnic groups or different races. Occasionally the multiculturalism policies increase the tension between diversity and social solidarity. Both reduce the support for redistribution. A British sociologist, T.H.Marshall, believed that citizenship must possess a feeling of community and have the feelings of trust, reciprocity or mutual obligation. The immigrants having been awarded many social benefits called social citizenship, developed a national consciousness (1950, p.8) . Social capital is hindered by ethnicity issues. Trusting one’s neighbours and getting involved in the social networks supports the capacity for collective action (Putnam, 2000). It is difficult to earn the trust of minorities when compared to the majority; trusting across racial differences is a challenge. However other factors like income, gender, age and social spending appear to score over ethnicity. The level of social spending in ethnic diversity depends on the amount of economic development, age distribution of the

Lightning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lightning - Essay Example To begin with, lightning contains a massive amount of energy. If it strikes a tree or a house it can destroy it due to the massive transfer of heat. Lightning can heat the air around it to almost 20,000 degrees Celsius which is about three times the temperature of the sun. So much energy travels so quickly in a lightning strike that it creates a supersonic wave which normal people call thunder. Because light travels faster than the speed of sound you usually see the lightning before you hear the thunder on a stormy day.1 It is often said that electricity was discovered by Benjamin Franklin when he went to go fly a kite in a big storm. It is true that the idea of harnessing the power of electricity came to him at that time, though others had carried out similar observations and experiments in the past.2 Even though this helped our understanding of static electricity, not a lot of new information has been learnt about lightning in recent years, how to harness it or use it for human purposes. This is unfortunate. Because of global warming we need new ideas about how to generate energy without harming the environment. If scientists can learn more, we may be able to use lightning to save the planet. Rakov, Vladimir A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Forming of Diamond Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Forming of Diamond - Research Paper Example This study focuses upon Diamond as the hardest mineral on earth. It is a natural mineral and is the hardest on Mohs hardness scale that is used to determine the hardness of solids, particularly minerals. This scale that lists the softest to the hardest solids has diamond as its hardest material with a ranking of 10. Although, graphite is also formed of carbon atoms, it is not as strong as diamond. However, graphite is being used in man-made diamonds due to its similarities in composition, where the ring-like structure of carbon atoms of graphite is altered to form a crystalline structure. It is a carbon component found in the form of an ore that is processed and used. The unique molecular structure of the material is what gives it its strength, as five carbon atoms forming a tetrahedron by each atom forming covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms gives diamond its unique stability which is hard to break. It is a crystalline structure with billions of carbon atoms bonding together under very high pressure and temperatures inside the Earth’s mantle at about 100 miles below its crust. These crystals are carried to the surface of the Earth by violent volcanic eruptions. Diamond is chemically inert to most of the acids and alkalis, has low thermal expansion, has a negative electron affinity, is a good thermal conductor, is least compressible, has high specific gravity, and has high refractive index and reflection. Common morphologies or or isometric crystal structures of diamond are: cubical, octahedral and do-decahedron. (Composition and properties of diamond, 2008). Advantages: Diamonds are usually transparent or pale blue but some coloured diamonds are also found due to the presence of impurities in the lattice structure. Traces of Boron, Nitrogen and other gases result in the blue, yellow and other colours of diamonds. Diamonds are found in Kimberlite and Lamproite rocks that are brought to the Earth’

Expectancy Violation Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Expectancy Violation Theory - Essay Example As people communicate, they create expectations on how the receiver or others will react to what they say. The violation of such expectations leads to a negative or positive perception.Expectancy violation theory values personal space as it is described as the boundary that individuals keep and freedom is given to those people who are close. People expect personal space with those they interact with and as per the shared relationship. Because of this, people tend to protect their personal space in events that they experience a violation in the expected behavior.Moreover, the expectancy of people is determined by many factors that influence the personal space. For instance, interactant characteristics are a factor that determines the expectancy in people. They include age, sex, and personality traits that one may poses. Interpersonal characteristics also determine it, and they include the relationship between the speaker and the receiver. Lastly, the environment plays a role in relati on to cultural influence and social situations. The above factors influence the interaction of individual, which influence the relationship they will establish.One example to describe the expectancy violation theory is when one expects a gym instructor to be rough and harsh. This will make one chilly and would minimize interaction and even leave going to the gym. However, the relationship will be established when one finds out that the gym instructor is calm and gently behaves. The second example is about two students who write.

Serving in Florida Essay Example for Free

Serving in Florida Essay She admires her, educated tongue, her graceful walk, her ability to swoon a listener when she reads, her success, her communication skills where she skillfully varies the way to she talks to depending on who she is talking to. 3. She is ashamed because she fails to use the proper verb and verbiage which in her eyes is disrespectful. When they talk with each other it is if they were paternal sisters separated only by education. 4. Their first meeting was not only at Mrs. Flowers house but that this meeting was filled with aromas of freshly cooked food (tea cookies), the cold taste of lemonade on the palate and an atmosphere laden and rich in success. â€Å"It was the equivalent of attending church â€Å" and attending church made her feel comfortable and so did Mrs. Flowers. This all influenced her because she learned that the person she liked, â€Å" liked â€Å" also liked her and this impressed her, and that coupled with all of the physical senses she now felt the emotional ones as well. And this would develop her into her mentors â€Å"way† of life. Answer to questions 1-4 in the Close Reading and #2 in the Writers Craft. 1. Para. 4 The aftermath of an historical hurricane†¦. †the smell of a dead city†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦para. 6 †this new urban landscape†. 2. Urban floodplain depicts the initial encounter to what the author sees and of which is just the surface of what to come in the latter part of the essay and segways into the â€Å" Life after Katrina â€Å". 3. In â€Å" Starting Again â€Å" he depicts how the most basic necessities are being established and provided to re-ignite and revive the once normal daily activities by way of the Salvation Army bringing primordial needs to the workers who will then bring back residents which then bring back the businesses and so on. He includes this because he notes that after destruction comes the re-building†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Still, destruction on a biblical scale also offers Noah-like opportunities for restoration after the flood â€Å". 4. I would define it as a person who possesses this â€Å" eco-geek† title as someone who is ecologically friendly, and an environmentalist who is also a tech-savvy academic in the intellect society of foremost thinkers. Writer’s Craft. #2. â€Å" I get out of my car, half suspecting the sweet, rotting smell of death† , â€Å" the main sewage plant†, â€Å"reeking of mold and rotted cat food†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. He brings clarity and vividness which brings sympathy and association to the five senses to which the reader can identify with.

Electricity Demand and Supply Pakistan Essay Example for Free

Electricity Demand and Supply Pakistan Essay Electricity load-shedding in Pakistan is one of the biggest domestic problems faced by the country. Along with the problems that the power shortage brings for the society as a whole and for the inhabitants of the society the power failures seriously curbs the economic potential of the economy. Considering most of the medium and large scale industries of Pakistan depend on machinery that is run by electricity they are heavily dependent on the electricity supply, with the electricity supply cut their production capacity decreases dramatically as well. Since most of Pakistani manufacturing industries lack the self generation ability hence this power outage is even more harmful to their business. So eventually what ends up happening is that along with creating general distress among the public this power shortage reduces the production capacity of the firms and hence reduces the aggregate supply. Aggregate supply can be defined as the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan on selling during a specific time period. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. In the long run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be vertical In the short run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be upward sloping SRAS (Short run aggregate demand) shows total planned output when prices in the economy can change but the prices and productivity of all factor inputs e.g. wage rates and the state of technology are assumed to be held constant. LRAS (Long run aggregate supply) shows total planned output when both prices and average wage rates can change – it is a measure of a country’s potential output and the concept is linked strongly to that of the production poss ibility frontier The SRAS and LRAS can be graphically represented as follows: SRAS LRAS Now what happens is that firms will have to cut down their production process in order to effectively meet the costs incurred or it will come to a position of losses. The cutting down of the production process means  decreasing the supply of the firm. As a firm produces lesser than it did before, fewer workers will be needed because the excess labor has been made redundant since fewer employees are now needed to produce lesser output. Moreover, the firm can no longer afford to employ as many workers as it did before. Hence this will eventually give rise to over the course of time as many workers have will have to be laid off in industries due to low activity. This will invariably decrease the total consumption of the population because as the unemployment increases the purchasing power of the people also falls. They are now earning fewer wages and the income effect will lead to a drastic decrease in the consumption. Consumption is one of the major contributors in the aggregate demand function. We define aggregate demand as the total demand for all goods and services produced in the economy at a given time and price level. It is the amount of goods and services in the economy that will be produced at all possible price levels. The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources.[3] Where: C = Consumption I = Investment G = Government Spending (X-M) = Net Exports – Net Imports The graph for AD is as follows: It is often cited that the aggregate demand curve is downward sloping because at lower price levels a greater quantity is demanded. While this is correct at the microeconomic, single good level, at the aggregate level this is incorrect. The aggregate demand curve is in fact downward sloping as a result of the Pigou’s wealth effect. Pigou effect is an economics term that refers to the stimulation of output and employment caused by increasing consumption due to a rise in real balances of wealth, particularly during deflation. Keynes said that a drop in aggregate demand could lower employment and the price level (deflationary depression). Hence it can be  said that any decrease in the consumption would bring about a fall in the aggregate demand. Consumer demand or consumption, that is also known as personal consumption expenditure, is the largest part of aggregate demand or effective demand at the macroeconomic level. The interaction of the aggregate demand and aggregate supply gives us the market equilibrium. Now as has been previously pointed out, frequent power cuts will mean a cutting down of the production process which invariably brings about a decrease in the aggregate supply. What happens is that as aggregate supply decreases with the aggregate demand being constant (as obviously people would still be demanding the same quantity of products) inflation will increase as shown below: Now here we can see with AS moving to a new point as it decreases it is actually increasing the price level which results in inflation and as a result unemployment increases as well, because when there is inflation in the economy there is a rise in prices hence there is a fall in the demand of goods and services and the producers reduce their production level and as a result they end up decreasing the number of workers which means unemployment increases. Unemployment on the macroeconomic level is a sign that the economy is operating below its full production capacity, this is a sign of inefficiency. Here we can see that inflation is playing a key role in determining the employment level. Hence we’ll have a look at how load shedding gives rise to inflation. Inflation is conventionally defined as a general increase in the level of prices in goods and services. One of the effects of inflation is a decrease in the value of money. During the course of inflation income and prices do not increase at the same rate; the purchasing power of the nation as a whole drops. One of the reasons of inflation is surplus amount of money which causes the prices to rise at an extremely high rate. Other than that, another reason for inflation is the rise in the costs of production which in turn increases the prices of the products. Moreover inflation occurs when aggregate supply exceeds aggregate demand hence increasing the price level. In the context of load shedding though, we see that it has been a triggering stimulus for initiating inflation. The CPI inflation averaged 23.5 percent in July-February 2008-09 in Pakistan as against 8.9 percent in the comparable period of last year. The deficiency of energy sources is causing stir on the demand side of the economic picture causing an increase in the demand for energy sources as it has a huge effect on all spheres of economy of a nation having a primary influence on industry level. The insufficiency of the available energy sources is causing the people to demand more electricity to meet their needs on the individual as well as industry level which in turn when observed in the context of graphical representation shows a shift of the demand curve to the right causing a shift of the equilibrium position increasing the price level. (Demand-Pull Inflation) The increase in level of inflation has also been caused due to an increase in the cost of energy sources. The scarcity of the energy resources available to the industries is making them shift to other sources for the purpose of energy generation which in turn has caused their costs to sky rocket. Now, due to the heavy burden that everyone has to face in this state of affairs is causing a shift of the AS curve in terms of graphical representation of the scenario. The increase in the costs of production for the industries in turn affects the aggregate supply causing it to decline. This shift of the AS curve to the left also then causes the equilibrium price level to rise, in turn stirring up inflation in the society (Cost- Push Inflation). The power tariffs imposed would further increase the industrial input cost which is already very high making the products more expensive in the domestic as well as the international market. As far as the international market is concerned, the competitive edge of a country would be lost as their goods are more expensive in comparison to the other countries.

Solving The Problem How To Produce Economics Essay

Solving The Problem How To Produce Economics Essay Introduction Economic is the study of how people satisfy their material needs and wants with the available resources. The primary focuses of economics are distinguished between needs wants, fundamental economic problems. Needs means something we have to have, ex foods, water, clothes. Wants are something we like to have. To produce these things society will face various problems. What to produce, how much to produce, how to produce, for whom to produce, when to produce. Basic economic problems are simply because wants are unlimited resources are limited. Resources can be mainly divided into two, natural economic. So we have to make choices to select wants needs. Its means unlimited wants limited resources force us to make choices. Evaluation of the total (life cycle) costs of alternative solutions to the problem of meeting the requirements of a particular client and choice of the best solution. ANSWERS Q1 Q1.1.Market Economy An economic system in which economic decisions and the pricing of goods and services  are guided solely by the aggregate interactions of a countrys citizens and businesses and there is little government intervention or central planning. This is the opposite of a centrally planned economy,  in which  government decisions  drive most aspects of a countrys economic activity.   The main co- coordinating device is the price decided in the market place through the interaction between demand and supply. Hence this also called free market system because the price is the main device that solves all basic economic problems. This is called price system. It is said that in a market economy, there is an invisible hand operating due to (a) economy is operated by the price system, (b) buyers and sellers respond to price system and accordingly both parties get coordinated, (c) basic economic problems are solved using the price system. In a market economy the basic economic problems are solved and resources are allocated in the following manner. Solving the problem what to produce in which quantity In a market economy this problem is addressed by the private sector entrepreneurs through the decisions made by them. Since they always have the profit motive the commodity and factor prices are considered in decision making. Consumers will create demand in the market by revealing their choice by purchasing goods. Suppliers create the supply force having considered the commodity price, cost and profit. Accordingly they will allocate more resources to produce more of goods with higher profits. Solving the problem how to produce This problem is concerned with the selection of production method by referring to the factor market. Since the private sector is concerned with profits they will select the most cost effective production method. Hence the factor with the lowest price will be applied more in the production in order to minimize the production cost. Solving the problem whom to produce This problem stresses how the economys total output gets distributed among people. This is decided by the distribution of income among people. Income distribution is determined by 2 factors which are (a) how much of factors are owned by the household units, (b) the price of such factors. In the market economies individuals can own resources without being subjected to any limitations. The resource ownership is decided by factors such as merits, skills, inheritance and entrepreneurship. Factor price is decided by the demand and supply of the factors. Therefore this problem is solved by the operation of the factor market. Command economy In command or planned economies, questions on resource allocation are decided by a central authority often the government or a state controlled council. However since centralized decisions require plans set in advance for the desired outcome, these economies are called centrally planned economies. In these economies, economic activities such as what to produce and how much to produce take place as per the commands of the central planners. E.g.: Cuba, North Korea In command economies the basic economic problems are solved and resource allocation is done based on a preset plan. This plan is a descriptive statement that illustrates resources, operation of production activities, and distribution of income among households etc. with a view of achieving a set of selected objectives. Solving the problem what to produce in which quantity It is the central planning authority that decides the resource allocation between consumer and investment goods. Solving the problem of how to produce It is the central planning authority that decides the production method and they set the plan to match inputs. Solving the problem for whom to produce This is concerned with the distribution of income among household units. The only factor that is owned by households is labour. The only means of income available to the household units is salaries and wages. A disparity in income distribution arises to a certain extent due to the differences in quality of labour. Further the quantity of goods and services the households get does not depend solely on their income because government also supplies goods and services at subsidized prices or free of charge. Q.1.2. (a) Market equilibrium price : Rs.51 (b) Market equilibrium quantity : 490 units Q.1.3. Effect of taxes The government imposes taxes on production or sale of commodities which are called indirect taxes. The indirect tax can be either a unit tax or an advoleram tax. If the government imposes an indirect tax on a commodity, it will shift the supply curve leftward by the amount of tax (i.e: if it is a unit tax, the supply curve will shift leftward by the amount of unit tax as supplier is supposed to pay the tax to the government). The effect of taxation will be that it increases the net cost of supplying a particular commodity. Therefore every quantity will be supplied at a higher price than earlier or in other words the quantity supplied at each price will be lesser than earlier. Figure 2 depicts the incidence of an indirect tax. Price S2 S1 C A C P2 B E P1 Qty D P0 0 Q2 Q1 Incidence of tax on the buyers Figure 2 Incidence of a tax on the sellers The division of the tax burden between the buyers and sellers depends on the elasticity of supply and demand. Given the demand conditions, the greater the elasticity of supply, and the greater the incidence of tax resting on the buyers of a commodity. On the other hand the greater the elasticity of demand, and greater the incidence of tax resting on the sellers of a commodity. Figure 2 represents the case of a commodity with relatively elastic supply. When the tax levied on this commodity, the supply curve shifts leftward from S1 to S2, the prices rise from P1 to P2 and the equilibrium quantity reduces from Q1 to Q2. P2 to P0 represents the unit tax. The price increase from P1 to P2 will be the incidence of tax on the buyers. P1 to P0 represents the burden of taxation (per unit) on the sellers. It should be noticed that in this case of elastic supply curve, the incidence of tax on the buyers is greater than that on the sellers. Imposing a tax on commodity typically increase the price paid by the demanders and decrease the price received by the suppliers. This certainly represents a cost to demanders and suppliers, but from the real cost of the tax is the output that has been reduced. The lost output is the social cost of tax. As per Figure 2, the concepts of consumer and producer surplus can be used to value the social cost of tax. The loss in consumers surplus is given by areas C+A and areas E+B represent the loss in producer surplus. Thus the total loss to the consumers and producers of the commodity is the areas C+A+E+B from which C+E is gained by the government as the tax revenue. The rest of the area A+B is known as the Dead Weight Loss of the tax or the excess burden of the tax. Basically, it is the lost value to the consumers and producers due to the reduction in sales of the commodity. Therefore the government does not get any revenue on the reduction in sales of the commodity. From the view point of society, it is a pure loss dead weight loss. Effect of Subsidies Subsidies on production will shift the supply curve to the right until the vertical distance between the two supply curves is equal to the per unit subsidy. When other factors remain constant, this will decrease the price paid by the consumers and increase the price received by the producers. A subsidy will reduce the net cost of supplying a commodity. Therefore every quantity will be supplied at a lower price than earlier or in other words the quantity supplied at each price will be higher than earlier. Figure 3 depicts the effect of subsidies. Figure 3 (b) FV= $100000 r = 12% n = 5 PV= ? PV = FV (1+r)-n = 100000(1+0.12)-5 = $56742.69 (c)FVA= Rs. 500000 n= 15 r= 7% PMT =? ] *Payment 500000= [(1+0.07)15-1)/ 0.07]* Payment Payment = Rs.19897.31 per annum Q2 Q2.1 Imagine that the monopolist produced one more unit than Qm. The consumer surplus from that unit would be the difference between the demand curve and the price for that unit. Now imagine that the monopolist produced all of the additional units it would take to make the efficient quantity. The area of the blue triangle represents the additional surplus that consumers would get if the market were efficient. In other words, the area of the triangle is the loss in consumer surplus that results from the monopolists under-production. It is the true dead weight loss to the society. Therefore it is evident that monopoly is not good from the view point of the society as a whole. A monopoly will be appropriate in a situation where there is a limited supply of a particular commodity which can be considered as a necessity good where it is required to be offered to the public at a reasonable price. In such situations the government will establish a monopoly. This will ensure that the particular product or service meets the required standards. E.g. Railway in Sri Lanka Q.2.3. (a) Labour per day Output per day Marginal Product Variable cost Average Cost Marginal Cost 0 0 0 0 1 5 5 50 10 10 2 12 7 100 8.33 7.14 3 20 8 150 7.5 6.25 4 31 11 200 6.45 4.54 5 40 9 250 6.25 5.56 6 46 6 300 6.52 8.33 7 50 4 350 7 12.5 8 52 2 400 7.69 25 (b) (c ) Q.3.1 Summarizing There are various types of economic systems practiced in the world. Such as Market economy, centrally planed (Controlled) economy, Mixed economy. Each system has various types of advantages disadvantages. Demand supply both determine the price of a good. Demand means willingness capacity to pay. Supply is the quantity of goods that businesses willing to produce or sell. In demand supply analysis the concept of equilibrium plays a major role. This is a concept which opposing dynamic forces cancel each other out. When it comes to theory of the firm economic cost can be divided as, explicit, implicit, fixed variable costs. Explicit costs are the monitory payments it makes to those who supply labor services, material, fuel, transport service etc. Firms implicit costs are the opportunity costs of using its employed resources. Fixed costs are not related directly to production rents, rates etc. they can change but not related to output. Variable costs that do change when we produce more more. There are 4 major types of market structures available. Each market consists of different features. The market means any organization where buyers, sellers, particular good are kept enclosed with each other.

The Types And Techniques Of Steganography Computer Science Essay

The Types And Techniques Of Steganography Computer Science Essay This document focus on an unfamiliar field of study in IT sector i.e. Steganography. This document covers various concepts in Steganography, A brief history of Steganography and introducing few types of techniques available today in Steganography. It also covers other topics like security in Steganography, mobile messaging, MMS Steganography related information. This document closes with a summery and proper solution . The initial footages of Steganography were by the Greek historian Herodotus in hischronicles known as Histories and date back to around 440 BC. Herodotus recorded two stories of Steganographic techniques during this time in Greece. The first stated that King Darius of Susa shaved the head of one of his prisoners and wrote a secret message on his scalp. When the prisoners hair grew back, he was sent to the Kings son in law Aristogoras in Miletus undetected. The second story also came from Herodotus, which claims that a soldier named Demeratus needed to send a message to Sparta that Xerxes intended to invade Greece. Back then, the writing medium was text written on wax-covered tablets. Demeratus removed the wax from the tablet, wrote the secret message on the underlying wood, recovered the tablet with wax to make it appear as a blank tablet and finally sent the document without being detected. Romans used invisible inks, which were based on natural substances such as fruit juices and m ilk. This was accomplished by heating the hidden text, thus revealing its contents. Invisible inks have become much more advanced and are still in limited use today. During the 15th and 16th centuries, many writers including Johannes Trithemius (author of Steganographia) and Gaspari Schotti (author or Steganographica) wrote on Steganagraphic techniques such as coding techniques for text, invisible inks, and incorporating hidden messages in music. Between 1883 and 1907, further development can be attributed to the publications of Auguste Kerckhoff (author of Cryptographic Militaire) and Charles Briquet (author of Les Filigranes). These books were mostly about Cryptography, but both can be attributed to the foundation of some Steganographic systems and more significantly to watermarking techniques. During the times of WWI (World War 1) and WWII (World War 11), significant advances in Steganography took place. Concepts such as null ciphers (taking the 3rd letter from each word in a harmless message to create a hidden message, etc), image substitution and microdot (taking data such as pictures and reducing it to the size of a large period on a piece of paper) were introduced and embraced as great steganographic techniques. In the recent digital world of today, namely 1992 to present, Steganography is being used all over the world on computer systems. Many tools and technologies have been created that take advantage of old steganographic techniques such as null ciphers, coding in images, audio, video and microdot. With the research this topic is now getting a lot of great applications for Steganography in the near future. HOW STEGANOGRAPHY WORKS Steganography replaces unneeded or unused bits in regular computer files (Graphics, sound, text) with bits of different and invisible information. Hidden information can be any other regular computer file or encrypted data. Steganography differs from cryptography in a way that it masks the existence of the message where cryptography works to mask the content of the message. Steganography sometimes used in conjunction with encryption. An encrypted file may still hide information using steganography, so even if the encrypted file is deciphered,the hidden information is not seen. . TYPES OF STEGANOGRAPHY There are different ways to hide the message in another, well known are Least Significant bytes and Injection. When a file or an image is created there are few bytes in the file or image which are not necessary or least important. These type of bytes can be replaced with a message without damaging or replacing the original message, by which the secrete message is hidden in the file or image. Another way is a message can be directly injected into a file or image. But in this way the size of the file would be increasing accordingly depending on the secrete message STEGANOGRAPHY IN IMAGE Digital images are the most widely used cover objects for steganography. Due to the availability of various file formats for various applications the algorithm used for these formats differs accordingly. An image is collection of bytes (know as pixels for images) containing different light intensities in different areas of the image. When dealing with digital images for use with Steganography, 8-bit and 24-bit per pixel image files are typical. Both have advantages and disadvantages 8-bit images are a great format to use because of their relatively small size. The drawback is that only 256 possible colors can be used which can be a potential problem during encoding. Usually a gray scale color palette is used when dealing with 8-bit images such as (.GIF) because its gradual change in color would be harder to detect after the image has been encoded with the secret message. 24-bit images offer much more flexibility when used for Steganography. The large numbers of colors (over 16 million) that can be used go well beyond the human visual system (HVS), which makes it very hard to detect once a secret message, has been encoded. Large amount of data can be encoded in to 24-bit images as it is compared to 8-bit images. The drawback of 24-bit digital images is their size which is very high and this makes them suspicious our internet due to their heavy size when compared to 8-bit images. Depending on the type of message and type of the image different algorithms are used. Few types in Steganography in Images: Least significant bit insertion Masking and filtering Redundant Pattern Encoding Encrypt and Scatter Algorithms and transformations Least significant bit insertion Least Significant Bit (LSB) insertion is most widely known algorithm for image steganography ,it involves the modification of LSB layer of image. In this technique,the message is stored in the LSB of the pixels which could be considered as random noise.Thus, altering them does not have any obvious effect to the image. Masking and filtering Masking and filtering techniques work better with 24 bit and grey scale images. They hide info in a way similar to watermarks on actual paper and are sometimes used as digital watermarks. Masking the images changes the images. To ensure that changes cannot be detected make the changes in multiple small proportions. Compared to LSB masking is more robust and masked images passes cropping, compression and some image processing. Masking techniques embed information in significant areas so that the hidden message is more integral to the cover image than just hiding it in the noise level. This makes it more suitable than LSB with, for instance, lossy JPEG images. Redundant Pattern Encoding Redundant pattern encoding is to some extent similar to spread spectrum technique. In this technique, the message is scattered through out the image based on algorithm. This technique makes the image ineffective for cropping and rotation. Multiple smaller images with redundancy increase the chance of recovering even when the stegano-image is manipulated. Encrypt and Scatter Encrypt and Scatter techniques hides the message as white noise and White Noise Storm is an example which uses employs spread spectrum and frequency hopping. Previous window size and data channel are used to generate a random number.And with in this random number ,on all the eight channels message is scattered through out the message.Each channel rotates,swaps and interlaces with every other channel. Single channel represents one bit and as a result there are many unaffected bits in each channel. In this technique it is very complex to draw out the actual message from stegano-image. This technique is more secure compared to LSB as it needs both algorithm and key to decode the bit message from stegano-image. Some users prefer this methos for its security as it needs both algorithm and key despite the stegano image. This method like LSB lets image degradation in terms of image processing, and compression. Algorithms and transformations LSB modification technique for images does hold good if any kind of compression is done on the resultant stego-image e.g. JPEG, GIF. JPEG images use the discrete cosine transform to achieve compression. DCT is a lossy compression transform because the cosine values cannot be calculated exactly, and repeated calculations using limited precision numbers introduce rounding errors into the final result. Variances between original data values and restored data values depend on the method used to calculate DCT STEGANOGRAPHY IN AUDIO Implanting secrete message into an audio is the most challenging technique in Steganography. This is because the human auditory system (HAS) has such a vibrant range that it can listen over. To put this in perspective, the (HAS) recognize over a range of power greater than one million to one and a range of frequencies greater than one thousand to one making it extremely hard to add or remove data from the original data structure. The only weakness in the (HAS) comes at trying to differentiate sounds (loud sounds drown out quiet sounds) and this is what must be exploited to encode secret messages in audio without being detected. Below are the lists of methods which are commonly used for audio Steganography. LSB coding Parity coding Phase coding Spread spectrum Echo hiding LSB coding Using the least-significant bit is possible for audio, as modifications usually would not create recognizable changes to the sounds. Another method takes advantage of human limitations. It is possible to encode messages using frequencies that are indistinct to the human ear. Using frequencies above 20.000Hz, messages can be hidden inside sound files and can not be detected by human checks. Parity coding Instead of breaking a signal down into individual samples, the parity coding method breaks a signal down into separate regions of samples and encodes each bit from the secret message in a sample regions parity bit. If the parity bit of a selected region does not match the secret bit to be encoded, the process flips the LSB of one of the samples in the region. Thus, the sender has more of a choice in encoding the secret bit, and the signal can be changed in a more unobtrusive fashion. Phase coding Phase coding attends to the disadvantages of the noise inducing methods of audio Steganography. Phase coding uses the fact that the phase components of sound are not as audible to the human ear as noise is. Rather than introducing perturbations, this technique encodes the message bits as phase shifts in the phase spectrum of a digital signal, attaining an indistinct encoding in terms of signal-to-perceived noise ratio. Spread spectrum In the context of audio Steganography, the basic spread spectrum (SS) method attempts to spread secret information across the audio signals frequency spectrum as much as possible. This is comparable to a system using an implementation of the LSB coding that randomly spreads the message bits over the entire audio file. However, unlike LSB coding, the SS method spreads the secret message over the sound files frequency spectrum, using a code that is independent of the actual signal. As a result, the final signal occupies a bandwidth in excess of what is actually required for broadcast. Echo hiding In echo hiding, information is implanted in a sound file by introducing an echo into the separate signal. Like the spread spectrum method, it too provides advantages in that it allows for a high data transmission rate and provides superior strength when compared to the noise inducing methods. If only one echo was produced from the original signal, only one bit of information could be encoded. Therefore, the original signal is broken down into blocks before the encoding process begins. Once the encoding process is completed, the blocks are concatenated back together to create the final signal. STEGANOGRAPHY IN VIDEO In video steganography, a video file would be embedded with supplementary data to hide secret messages. In the process, an intermediate signal which is a function of hidden message data and data of content signal would be generated. Content data (video file) is then combined with this intermediate signal to result encoding. The supplementary data can include copy control data which can be brains by consumer electronic device and used to disable copying. The intermediate signal may also contain a pseudo arbitrary key data so as to hide encoding and decode needs corresponding key to extract hidden information from encoded content. In some implementations regulation data is embedded in the content signal with auxiliary data. This regulation data consists of known properties enabling its identification in the embedded content signal. This encoding is robust against scaling, resampling and other forms of content degradation, so that the supplementary data can be detected from the content which might have been degraded. There are different approaches for video steganography apart from the above mentioned. Most widely known are listed and discussed below. Least Significant Bit Insertion This is the most simple and popular approach for all types of steganography. In this method the digital video file is considered as separate frames and changes the displayed image of each video frame. LSB of 1 byte in the image is used to store the secret information. Effecting changes are too small to be recognized by human eye. This method enhances the capacity of the hidden message but compromises the security requirements such as data integrity. Real time video steganography This kind of steganography involves hiding information on the output image on the device. This method considers each frame shown at any moment irrespective of whether it is image; text .The image is then divided into blocks. If pixel colors of the blocks are similar then changes color characteristics of number of these pixels to some extent. By labeling each frame with a sequence number it would even be easy to identify missing parts of information. To extract the information, the displayed image should be recorded first and relevant program is used then. STEGANOGRAPHY IN DOCUMENT Steganography in documents just focuses on altering some of its characteristics. They can either be characteristics of text or even text formatting. Below are few ways listed and discussed to implement the same. Since everyone can read, encoding text in neutral sentences is doubtfully effective. But taking the first letter of each word of the previous sentence, one can see that it is possible and not very difficult. Hiding information in plain text can be done in many different ways. One way is by simple adding white space and tabs to the ends of the lines of the document .The last technique was successfully used in practice and even after a text has been printed and copied on paper for ten times, the secret message could still be retrieved. Another possible way of storing a secret inside a text is using a publicly available cover source, a book or a newspaper, and using a code which consists for example of a combination of a page number, a line number and a character number. This way, no information stored inside the cover source leads to the hidden message. Discovering it depends exclusively on gaining knowledge of the secret key. Setting background color and font color is one of the mainly used staganographic approach. This method is focused for Microsoft word documents. Choose predefined colors and set font and background colors of invisible characters such as space, tab or the carriage return characters. R,G,B values are 8 bits means we have allowed range of 0 to 255.Most of the viewers would not feel interested about color values of these invisible characters hence 3 bytes of information is easily hidden in each occurrence of space,tab or carriage return.This approach needs no extra information to hide required bits. SECURITY IN STEGANOGRAPHY PURE KEY STEGANOGRAPHY Pure Steganography is a Steganography system that doesnt require prior exchange of some secret information before sending message; therefore, no information is required to start the communication process: the security of the system thus depends entirely on its secrecy .The pure Steganography can be defined as the quadruple (C, M, D, and E) where: C: the set of possible covers. M: the set of secret massage with |C| à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ |M|. E: CÃÆ'-Mà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢C the embedding function. D: Cà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢M of the extraction function with the property that D (E(c,m))=m for all m à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ M and c à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ C. Cover (C) Message (M) Embedding (E) Extracting (D) Strgo-Object Message(M) In most applications, pure Steganography is preferred, since no stego-key must be shared between the communication partners, although a pure Steganography protocols dont provide any security if an attacker knows the embedding method PRIVATE KEY STEGANOGRAPHY A Private Key Steganography system is similar to a symmetric cipher, where the sender chooses a cover and embeds the secret message into the cover using a secret key. If the Private Key used in the embedding process is known to the receiver, he can reverse the process and extract the secret message. Anyone who doesnt know the Private Key should not be able to obtain evidence of the encoded information. The Private Key Steganography can be defined as the quintuple (C, M, K, DK, and EK) where: C: the set of possible covers. M: the set of secret message. K: the set of secret keys. Ek: CÃÆ'-MÃÆ'-Kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢C With the property that DK (EK(c,m,k),k)=m for all m à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ M, c à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ C and k à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ K KEY KEY Strgo-Object Cover (C) Embedding (E) Message (M) Extracting (D) Message (M) PUBLIC KEY STEGANOGRAPHY Public key Steganography does not depend on the swapping of a private key. It necessitates two keys, one of them private (secret) and the other public: the public key is stored in a public database, whereas the public key is used in the embedding process. The Private Key is used to reconstruct the secret message One way to build a public key Steganography system is to use a public key crypto system. The sender and the receiver can exchange public keys of some public key cryptography algorithm before imprisonment. Public key Steganography utilizes the fact that the decoding function in a Steganography system can be applied to any cover, whether or not it already contains a secret message. The public key Steganography relies on the fact that encrypted information is random enough to hide in plain sight. The sender encrypts the information with the receivers public key to obtain a random-looking massage and embeds it in a channel known to the receiver, thereby replacing some of the natu ral arbitrariness with which every communication process is accompanied. Assume that both the cryptographic algorithms and the embedding functions are publicly known. The receiver who cannot decide a priori if secret information is transmitted in a specific cover suspect the arrival of message and simply try to extract and decrypt it using his private key. If the cover actually contained information, the decryption information is the senders message OTHER TYPES MOBILE MESSAGING STEGANOGRAPHY Mobile Messaging Service enables mobile users to send and receive messages containing image, audio and video. These messages are exchanged ultimately through a component known as Mobile Switching Center. MMS messages have several benefits like communicating even when the server is busy, exchanging messages while making calls, sending offline messages. They also provide services like eCommerce. As there is possibility of disclosure of confidential and personal information between various systems, information security has got immense importance. MMS Steganography provides confidentiality and integrity with subtle unremovability.Users can profit from concealed channels in order to send and receive hidden messages and keys. Multimedia objects may contain hidden information embedded to them using steganography techniques. The steganography technique used must satisfy following: Reliability of secreted information after it has been embedded inside the content should be correct. Content object should remain intact or almost unchanged to the human eyes. There can be mainly two types of steganography techniques possible for MMS objects. Fragile steganography comprises of implanting information into a file which is destroyed if the file is modified. Video Technique: Works over video files. Combinations of sound and image techniques are used to implement this as whole. The scope of adding lots of data is much greater. Sound Technique: Works over audio files like Mp3 files. Encode data as binary to sound like noise and can be identified by receiver with correct key. Data being added is in narrow bandwidth compared to the medium. Robust techniques aim to embed information into a file which cannot easily be destroyed. Image Hiding: Works over images. Lease Significant Bit Least significant bits of each pixel in one image are used to hide the most significant bits of another. Simple and easy way of information hiding. Direct Cosine Transform Transformed DCT coefficients would be altered. Image would be made robust by scattering the hiding information evenly. Wavelet Transform Dividing whole image into small wavelets and then hide the information. Coefficients of wavelets are altered with tolerable noise. Text Technique: Works over documents.Just by changing some of the characteristics of the content information can be embedded. Alterations would not be visible to user. As MMS Steganography becomes more widely used now there must be a clear definition of robustness. This definition helps to prevent detection and removal of embedded data. Below are the few properties a good technique should hold: Quality of media should not perceptibly degrade after embedding secret data. Secret data should be imperceptible with out secret knowledge, typically the key. If several data are there, they should not hamper with each other. Secret data should survive which dont degrade the perceived quality of work. MMS STEGANOGRAPHY RELATED WORK As MMS carries multi formatted data such as Text, Audio, Video and images, it has got more chances of sending secret messages and can implement various methodologies in order to keep the message safe and secret. Currently this study is all about Text and Video based Steganography. An MMS capable mobile with inbuilt cameras and customized applications has high importance in terms of steganography creation and extraction Capacity Efficiency Processing time Resource time consumption Advantage Text technique Less More Less Less Easy and simple to implement Video technique More More More More Holds lot of information compared to text technique Table -1- comparison between Text and Video steganography Techniques PROPER SOLUTION MMS Messages can hold any of video, audio, image and text encapsulated with in Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL) . The recommended steganography deals with three major parts of MMS which can provide us with maximum capacity possible and not compromising main aim which is total security. The most important issues in steganography are secrecy, payload, robustness and speed. Below steps describes proposed steganography working model: First part of the process hides stegno key in SMIL using white space algorithm. Then Least Significant Bit algorithm is used to hide the secret message in video. Rest of the information would be hidden inside text of the MMS using abbreviation algorithm. Ratio of information hiding in video part to text part is 6:1 hence I bit stored in text corresponds to 6 bits stored in 3gp video. High security can be granted with reasonable processing speed and without affecting the performance of mobile. 2.10 CHAPTER SUMMERY This document is all about available Steganography techniques and methodologies. It has listed down the various methodologies and their uses. Along with these, it has also included about the MMS Steganography importance and ways to do that.