Achilles as a Classical Hero

Achilles as a Classical Hero Introduction Under classical mythology, one can define a hero as a courageous individual with great strength, widely known and celebrated by his society for his actions which portray exceptional boldness.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Achilles as a Classical Hero specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In literature, a hero simply means a person with a character that people need to admire or emulate. S/he therefore possesses all the ideals celebrated, valued and articulated by his/her culture. Heroes exist in all fields; for example, in politics, sports, and struggle for freedom among others. Be it in classical mythology, ordinary literature, or any other field, a hero must possess ordinary characteristics that no other person possesses. Since the judgment of heroic deeds lies in the culture that shapes an individual, different cultures value different traits in their heroes. In literature circles, heroism emanat es from both the culture of the author and the culture to which the hero belongs. Heroism not only focuses on the actions of an individual, but also the reasons behind their actions. According to the Greek culture, a hero must be a man with exceptional warrior characteristics; he should stand above other warriors in the society in all aspects; he must not only show warrior characteristics, but should also be intelligent and good in speech; he should endeavor to shun anything that intends to spoil his repute as a good warrior and finally he should have greater strength and courage than his fellow warriors who should freely acknowledge that he is the best warrior amongst them. These exceptional qualities make him legible for crowning as a leader. In the Greek history, a story is told of a man, Achilles, who possessed characteristics that the Greek culture reserved to heroes. A study of the Greek culture and its comparison to Achilles gives an important revelation: Achilles is a classi cal hero. This essay focuses on Achilles’ deeds and how they contributed towards his heroism. Achilles Heroic Characteristics Achilles is a swift runner. According to Lowrey, this character of swiftness comes out when â€Å"epithets referred to him as a man who was swift footed† (2). Swiftness is an important characteristic for individuals with the desire to excel in war or any other form of physical confrontation. With swiftness, one is able to easily capture or flee from an enemy during war. Besides, such people are able to perform better during competitions aimed at searching for true heroes of a given society. As a result, warriors all over the world cherish this trait and it is through it that Achilles gets crowned as a hero.Advertising Looking for research paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Besides swiftness, Achilles possesses the characteristics of courage. Courage, as a trait enables an individual to do what the ordinary person cannot do on the grounds that, it has negative possible consequences or evokes fear of injury or death (Anderson, 12). As a result, one can take up any challenge regardless of any negative impeding consequences of such actions. The spirit of courageousness enabled Achilles to fight his enemies without fear of possible injury or death. This character trait as a courageous man also enabled him to storm out twelve cities of men both by sea through his ships and by land. Honestly, this is not an easy task! No wonder some of his people describe him as a lion-hearted man. According to Redfield, it is Achilles’ courage â€Å"that made him face any body in battle without fear† (39). In some instances, it is evident that people knew him as a man who ruthlessly and courageously tore his opponents in battle. This task cannot be possible for a timid individual; therefore, because of his courageous nature, Achilles pas ses for a hero. Achilles’ heroic deeds made people revere him so much that they gave him godly characteristics. They regarded him as a man who commanded fear all over because his actions evoked feelings of fear and terror (Jaeger, 35). This attitude of people towards Achilles portrays him as a special man deserving a special kind of treatment. His ability to break his opponents when at war and his physical superiority over all other warriors paints a picture of someone who elicits fear at his appearance. The fact that all other warriors fear and consider him as the best warrior explains why the society treats him with much reverence; he is a classical hero. Besides the reverence that people have towards him, Achilles has always been a source of fear before his enemies. This trait has always made him scary before his opponents. One of the goddesses in the Greek culture, goddess Hera reveals that the Trojans, who are rivals to Achilles’ community, tremble at the mention of Achilles. In yet another instance Patrocus refers to Achilles as a man â€Å"who is by far greater than the Achileans† (Lowrey, 2). As such, Patrocus says that none of the Achileans can surmount any kind of physical challenge to him. Such a statement not only cements the godly character of Achilles, but also confirms people’s belief in him as a man with significant superiority over his peers and opponents where it really matters. Based on these two instances it is quite clear that Achilles is a hero.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Achilles as a Classical Hero specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The experience that Achilles undergoes while in Combat clearly brings out his heroic characteristics. As Achilles describes his combat experiences, the audience feels how he was â€Å"devoted to his people, fighting on their behalf to ensure that they enjoy their lives† (Lowrey, 3). In his expla nation, it is evident that Achilles spent so many sleepless nights throughout the time of war. He even loses his own blood during the war on behalf of his people; however, this damaging event or his weariness could not discourage him from fighting for the wellbeing of his people; a true character of a hero. He instead, continues to fight on without any fear of injury or death till the end of the war. From these actions, it is vivid that Achilles was a man with exceptional character and deserved to be honored as a hero. While in Combat, Achilles also reveals that all his selflessness and determination in war have seen him through difficulties. Selfness as a character trait refers to the ability of an individual to care not only about his own welfare, but also the welfare of others who are bound to benefit from his/her efforts no matter how small they may be. From the way Achilles describes his life during the war, one can tell that he possessed a selfless character. This selfless cha racter clearly comes out during the war period. Referring to this period, Achilles says that he put â€Å"everything aside and struggled with other warriors during the battle only for the sake of the women of his fellow men† (Seamus, 1883). The move by Achilles to consider the wellbeing of women belonging to other men exposes him as somebody who does not think of self gain out of his struggle. In addition, the fact that he is not married at the time of battle further proves that indeed, he is a selfless character. According to the Greek culture, selflessness is a trait of heroes; therefore, Achilles’ selflessness qualifies him to be a classical hero. Besides selflessness, Achilles possesses an enduring character. Endurance refers to the ability of an individual to persevere pain or suffering with the hope of achieving success in the end of the struggle. Achilles’ ability to endure comes out when he talks about the experience he had in Combat during the war time. During this trying period, he says that he spent sleepless nights for many days. This was because of his alertness against potential attack by their opponents and only endurance can help an individual to ward off sleep. Besides his sleeplessness, Achilles lost his own blood, not mentioning the pain he underwent through when he sustained the bloody injuries.Advertising Looking for research paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Despite these sufferings in sleeplessness and loss of blood through injury, Achilles continued to fight on for the welfare of his people and in the end, he won the battle. It is this relentless spirit that enabled Achilles to emerge victorious in many wars against their enemies and therefore, his perseverance during war portrays him as a classical hero. Finally, the case of Achilles and Agamemnon also proves Achilles’ heroic characteristics. Achilles’ acts of heroism had earlier won him a much coveted prize. It however emerges that Agamemnon tried to take this prize away from Achilles in exchange of expensive gifts; seven strongholds and a daughter of as wife. Conventionally, these attractive offers by Agamemnon would obviously compel Achilles to consider taking the gifts in lieu of the coveted prize. However, to the surprise of many, Achilles handles this situation in the most rational manner; using his intelligence, he discovers that accepting these gifts would serve to show his acceptance of Agamemnon’s superior status; therefore, he refuses to take the gifts and the bride offer and instead decides to protect his higher status of heroism. To Achilles, heroism consists not in the abundance of material things or wives per se, but in character; enduring character. Very few people can readily make such an informed decision. This intelligent move by Achilles is in line with what the Greece culture expects from heroes like him. Consequently, these adherences to the Greek cultural values that govern heroism help bring out Achilles status as a genuine hero. Conclusion Heroism is a highly coveted trait in all the cultures across the continents. Before the relevant authorities crown an individual as a hero, they consider his/her achievements which should be extraordinary. In one such culture, the Greek, heroism is a function of an individual’s intelligence, physical appearances, physical capability and his contribution as a warrior in the battlefield. The Greek culture also requires that as a hero, one should always be ready to guard his superior status no matter the consequences or benefits that one would gain by conceding his superiority. Achilles is a classical hero according to the Greek culture mainly because he possesses all the characteristics needed to qualify an individual as a true hero. Achilles has physical superiority, has outstanding warrior characteristics that his fellow warriors readily acknowledge and he is not ready to relinquish his superior status; not even with a promise of expensive gifts and a bewitching bride. Anderson, William S. The Art of the Aeneid. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1969. Jaeger, Werner. Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1939. Lowrey, Belen. â€Å"The Hero as a Reflection of Culture.† Journal of Ancient Spartan and  Greek History 23.9 (2005): 1-12. Redfield, James. Nature and Culture in the Iliad. Chicago: The Unive rsity of Chicago Press, 1975. Seamus, Heaney. The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. 1880- 1903.

An Incident You Will Never Forget free essay sample

Certain incidents so impress us that they leave an indelible mark on our memory. I was once involved in an incident of which I shall always have vivid recollections. The incident occurred when I visited a village in India together with my parents, sometime during my holidays last year. Early in the morning on the day the incident occurred, I was talking with a few of my new friends in that village. All of a sudden, a boy of my age came rushing towards us to break the news that violence had broken out in the neighborhood. Alarmed at this news, we began to protect ourselves, and before long the violence spread like wild fire throughout our area. I was a little confused at first for I had no idea about the cause of the outbreak of violence there. One of my friends told me that the area had been notorious for such occurrence owing to rivalry between two parties. We will write a custom essay sample on An Incident You Will Never Forget or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Each party tried to destroy the influence of the other in that area, and the bad blood that existed between them had caused several deaths and great misery to innocent people for a long time. Official influence could not be exercised effectively in this area owing to its remoteness from the centers of authority. The members of the rival parties therefore enjoyed almost complete freedom of action. The police arrived only when there was news of violence, and often long after the damage has been done. While I was listening to this account of facts and events, the situation suddenly took an ugly turn. A man who had been standing a short distance away from us ran into his house most unexpectedly, and within minutes his house was ablaze. My friends and I then ran towards his house to put out the fire; but we were stopped by a few burly men who were holding lethal weapons in their hands. They threatened to kill if we offered any help to anyone. One of them had even struck me on my head with a stick. We realized instantly that we were no match for them and that discretion was the better part of valor. We therefore decided to proceed no further. Soon the fire from that house began to spread and several houses were burning. There were frantic cries for help. Men, women, and children were running in all directions in their desperate attempts to save whatever they could from the fire, in spite of the interference of the gangsters. A few of the unfortunate ones were burned to death, including the man who had set fire to his own house. We then concluded that the man must have been so disgusted with what we had seen for so long that he had no more desire to live, and this was his way of putting an end to himself. It was indeed a pathetic sight. Then, after several hours, the police arrived when more than a quarter of the village had already been burned to ashes. They asked us several questions to find out if we had ourselves participated in the violence. As I was foreigner who would be leaving that village the following day, I had the courage to answer all their questions and to point out the men who had threatened to kill us. Those men were then arrested together with other suspects. Early next morning, my parents and I left the village with no more desire to re-visit this place; but my memory of this incident will remain fresh forever.

Thomas Edison Speech essays

Thomas Edison Speech essays You get in your car on a Saturday night. You turn on the light in your car so that you can read the directions to the movie theater. Once you find out where to go you enter the theater and watch a movie. Following the movie, you get into your car and listen to your favorite album as you leave the theater. Now imagine a world without these things, and many more too. This is a world without Thomas Edison, one of the greatest inventors of all time. Thomas Edison was the man who brought light to the shadows. He was the man that made pictures move and talk. He was the man that brought music all over the world. He was the man that made the impossible possible. He was the man that made dreams realities. Thomas Edison was always a bright individual. He received his education from his mother until the age of twelve and exhibited extremely innovative behavior at a very young age. This innovative behavior led Thomas Edison to become one of the true geniuses of our time and it was apparent even in his young teens that Edison would change the world forever. The true marvel of Thomas Edison's brilliance was his keen understanding of complex mathematics and science, despite the fact that he stopped his schooling at the age of twelve. Despite this, Edison had a keen understanding of calculus and physics. Ask yourself this, what kind of math were you doing in sixth grade? However, his understanding of complex subjects such as these came second to his incredibly innovative mind. Edison is quoted saying, "I never pick up an item without thinking of how I might improve it." However, it takes a lot more then an idea to be a great inventor like Thomas Edison. No matter how smart a person may be, it means nothing without the perseverance and determination to meet their full potential. Edison is a shining example of this, no one worked as hard to reach their goals as Thomas Edison. Thomas Edison was born into a life or hardships. ...

Free Essays on Henryk Sienkiewicz And Chinese Labor In California, 1880

Henryk Sienkiewicz and Chinese Labor in California, 1880 Immigrating from Poland in 1876 â€Å"to establish a utopian community in Anaheim† (p164), Henryk Sienkiewicz observed and recorded many Chinese workers. In one of his documents, Henryk Sienkiewicz Appraises Chinese Labor in California, 1880, Sienkiewicz discusses how the Chinese contribute to capital and why their presence was so opposed by white workers. The author appears to be stating facts about the Chinese workers, explaining their pros and cons working in California, and discussing the attitudes of California residents in regards to their presence. Everything costs less because of their low cost of labor, yet is it the wealthy class that benefit from this low cost of labor and not the white working class? Ever since the immigration of the Chinese workers, prices for everything became lower. The Chinese worked for lower rates, and in turn, the prices for the public became lower. The Chinese were in most every field of work in California. They worked in the fruit orchards, hop-gardens, factories, private homes, restaurants, railroads, and vineyards. The Chinese workers immigrated as single men, leaving family back home. Upon collecting their earnings while working for lower rates, these men save. Not often will they go out into society to spend what they have made, but rather keep what they have to take back with them to China. Based on observing this, the goal of the Chinese seems to be personal and not community based. They are working to better their own lives not the societies they are working in. This is where the argument begins. Because they work for lower income rates are they contributing to society when it comes to outcome? These single men are controlling many of the work-related fields in California and are often preferred versus the white worker who usually has a family, kids, and a wife. The white workers are often in greater labored posit... Free Essays on Henryk Sienkiewicz And Chinese Labor In California, 1880 Free Essays on Henryk Sienkiewicz And Chinese Labor In California, 1880 Henryk Sienkiewicz and Chinese Labor in California, 1880 Immigrating from Poland in 1876 â€Å"to establish a utopian community in Anaheim† (p164), Henryk Sienkiewicz observed and recorded many Chinese workers. In one of his documents, Henryk Sienkiewicz Appraises Chinese Labor in California, 1880, Sienkiewicz discusses how the Chinese contribute to capital and why their presence was so opposed by white workers. The author appears to be stating facts about the Chinese workers, explaining their pros and cons working in California, and discussing the attitudes of California residents in regards to their presence. Everything costs less because of their low cost of labor, yet is it the wealthy class that benefit from this low cost of labor and not the white working class? Ever since the immigration of the Chinese workers, prices for everything became lower. The Chinese worked for lower rates, and in turn, the prices for the public became lower. The Chinese were in most every field of work in California. They worked in the fruit orchards, hop-gardens, factories, private homes, restaurants, railroads, and vineyards. The Chinese workers immigrated as single men, leaving family back home. Upon collecting their earnings while working for lower rates, these men save. Not often will they go out into society to spend what they have made, but rather keep what they have to take back with them to China. Based on observing this, the goal of the Chinese seems to be personal and not community based. They are working to better their own lives not the societies they are working in. This is where the argument begins. Because they work for lower income rates are they contributing to society when it comes to outcome? These single men are controlling many of the work-related fields in California and are often preferred versus the white worker who usually has a family, kids, and a wife. The white workers are often in greater labored posit...

Etiology and management of lower leg pain Essay

Etiology and management of lower leg pain - Essay Example Pain has got various types. One individual may respond differently to different types of pain and at the same time different individuals may respond differently to the same type of pain. Lower leg is a portion of the body which not only supports whole of the body but also helps in moving the body from one place to another. Weight bearing process may cause some damage to the lower leg structures but when some one is running then this damage may be multiplied. The damage could be related to soft tissue injury, like: muscle, tendons or to the bony tissue ranging from just a stroke to the compound fracture. Various types of trauma and the eventual result of this injury vary depending upon the force and angle of the force applied. As all these traumatic episodes pass through an inflammatory process so the affected individual feels pain accordingly. Although the iliotibial band extends from the ileum to the condyles of the tibia but after the damage caused due to any factor it results in lower leg pain. This is the most common cause of lateral knee pain among the athletes. The affected structure is the bursa surrounding the iliotibial band. The injury usually occurs in those individuals who perform tasks which involve repetitive flexion and extension activities, for example: athletes of soccer, aerobics etc. The presentation of the case is with severe pain in the knee and lower leg. Management: Local steroid injection Achilles tendon The causes of Achilles tendinopathy are still unclear and the explanation is given on the basis of some theories which link the pathology to a variety of mechanism or factors, like: overuse stresses, poor vascularity, lack of flexibility genetic characteristics, hormonal or metabolic factors and female sex. This topic is one of the areas of lower leg pain which have been studied extensively. Excessive loading of the tendon is no doubt an important factor involved in the injury; even damage can occur to the tendon if the stress to the tendon is within physiological limits. Management Conservative Avoidance of training program which end up in this injury Gentle static strengthening Correction nwith orthotics Cryotherapy Therapeutic ultrasound Pharmacologic support Low dose heparin, wydase etc Surgical treatment of the tendinopathy Chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) This is one of the commonest causes of lower leg pain which manifests itself in the anterior compartment of the leg due to over usage. Tibial stress fracture In the lower leg, either of the two bones, tibia and fibula, can have stress fracture. Usually, the fracture appears on the lower end of the two bones on medial side. Predisposing factors are: Continuous muscle contraction

The impact of the Internet on the field of advertising Research Paper

The impact of the Internet on the field of advertising - Research Paper Example Moreover, the other important question is regarding the effectiveness of online advertising. It is said that the online advertising is less costly but whether the returns on investment from online advertising are more profitable than traditional advertising is another important question that needs to be answered. Kim & McMillan, (2008) believe that the internet is allowing companies to engage with consumers in a more interactive and personalized manner, which is why we see companies employing online mechanisms heavily for consumer related advertising. So how are companies exactly reaching out to customers via the internet is the question. Online promotion can take different shapes and forms, with firm’s using a combination of methods according to what they perceive is the best way to approach their target audience. Web marketing is one such method, whereby a corporation creates its own websites to inform customers of its products and services, places adverts on search engines or other relevant pages of affiliate websites to increase awareness, or makes its own page available to users who search for it using such search engines (Manchanda, et al., 2006). Email marketing is another technique whereby a firm sends promotional messages, newsletters, product updates etc. to the personal ema il accounts of its customers (Saeed, Hwang, & Grover, 2003). In some cases, potential customers who form the target audience are also included for wider reach if they subscribe to the service (Saeed, Hwang, & Grover, 2003). The third and perhaps the most powerful approach is social media marketing (Kim & McMillan, 2008). The internet has set up social networking platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and GooglePlus which hosts large swathes of the world population. Firms have used this facility to their advantage by setting up their own company pages which not

Analysis of The Quote by Ellie Wiesel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis of The Quote by Ellie Wiesel - Essay Example It is not only about violence, murder, and terror. All these negative causes are not so numerous in our lives. On the other side, people are more inclined to be lazy, greedy and, finally, indifferent to each other, in particular, and to the environment, on the whole. Needless to say, indifferent people are helpless in loving somebody. It is impossible for them, as they feel free to neglect the virtues of the moral and right attitude toward each other. Hence, indifference gives birth to a host of negative feelings where hatred and cruelty are at the core. Among the rest of the quotes by Ellie Wiesel, the aforementioned highlights the roots of the human tragedy today as it was in the past. In other words, seeing indifference in one’s actions and attitudes toward a person or the mankind, there is no way other than the redemption. Redemption from everything one dreamed about and thought of in a sweet memory. Day by day, this feeling would likely grow up until one loses the temper and does harm to the environment where he/she lives. The consequences may simply overgrow into a collapse of living in mutual understanding of peace. What is more, Wiesel is right when she strikes out the concept of â€Å"hate† as lower in the meaning compared to the concept of â€Å"indifference.† It is natural to anyone to get rid of any haunting prejudices about the negative meaning of indifference just because it is an ability to make a change. No one is likely to pinpoint the threat of indifference able to ruin lives of people in need. An abrupt halt of passion and desire to help and to keep up with those in need is like a heart failure for a serious patient, so to speak. Thus, indifference is a hidden trick of the devil on his way toward total destruction of morale and humane as the pivotal virtues of the societal life.   

Smoking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Smoking - Essay Example (Sloan 222). The lung is able to filter some of the beneficial substances in cigarettes though harmful chemicals leak into the lungs. Tar causes damage to airways of lungs and this could lead to unusual multiplication of cells in the lungs. As one continues to expose lungs to smoking, lungs experience irreversible changes in the cells. This specifically affects nucleus of the cells hence uncontrolled cell growth of cells in the lungs. Every puff smoke inhaled by a smoker either of tobacco or cigarette deposits tar that coats the lungs and may cause difficulty in breathing since there is no exchange of clean air from the atmosphere to lungs and vice-versa. Mouth cancer, also referred to as oral cancer cannot be evaded by smokers. People have been made to believe that smoking using cigars and pipes leaves less tobacco in the system. However, this is untrue since cigar and pipe smokers are at high risks of mouth cancer. The pipe-stem rests on the lip and exposes users to another great risk of lip cancer. Continued smoking or tobacco use is said to be the major cause of mouth cancer. Smoking causes irritation on the mouth surface. Burning of tobacco and its by-products is the base line of this irritation after interacting with mouth membrane. Moreover, cigars and pipes take some considerable time to burn and thus expose user to secondary smoke. Smoking could also lead to loss of teeth and other teeth illnesses. Smoking has a direct effect on the way the body responds to exercise. Exercise requires oxygen in the body. Smoking brings carbon monoxide in the body which reduces the level of oxygen in the body. As a result, there is increased heart beat since less oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream (Owing 166). The heart is overworked in an attempt to get more oxygen since carbon monoxide stops supply of oxygen. Thus, smokers have poor body fitness since the body cannot respond to any vigorous activity. Smoking

The Article Jihadi John and London's Culture of Gang Violence Assignment

The Article Jihadi John and London's Culture of Gang Violence - Assignment Example As the essay states many young Muslims living in London had joined ISIS. For example, Mohammed Emwazi alias Jihadi John has joined the ISIS where he is now an IS executioner. Mohammed Emwazi grew up in a fractured environment with high population, immense poverty, and high levels of crime like shootings, drug wars, and gang violence. According to the report finidngs Emwazi’s parents were middle class citizens and hence poverty may not have motivated the young British Muslim join radical Islamists groups. Emwazi was a member of the â€Å"London Boys† a criminal gang that operated in north-west London with an ultimate goal of financing radical Islamists groups. In the recent past, radical Islamists groups have been interacting with organized criminal gangs like the London Boys. Just like some other young Muslims in London, Emwazi joined the London Boys to escape from the alienation experienced in London. Even the police mistreated and suspected young Muslims of crime leading to the increasing Muslim prison in London where 27 % of all prisoners are Muslims. Radical preachers and their rallies helped Emwazi to understand his Islamic identity. Radical Islamists groups create a sense of brotherhood and unites Muslims thus attracting many young Muslims like Emwazi. The article notes that radical Islamist group like ISIS helped Emwazi and his peers to overcome tribal differences, escape uncertainty, and value their lives.

International Finance Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Finance Market - Essay Example Also, the importance of the capital asset pricing model for firms which want to evaluate their cost of capital, is explored in the next part. The link between CAPM, the required return on equity and the weighted average cost of capital is explored, with the help of various resources. There are many ways for the companies to raise the capital, the most common way is from stock markets, in this way the investor will be part from this company and the benefits will be based on the company performance and the company success is important for the shareholder. Another option is from bonds markets, in this way the bond owner does not have the ownership in the company and the benefit not very important for the bondholders, also the bondholder does not care about company success (Young, A 2009). For example if a firm undertake debt to finance the business, it will help the owner to retain the ownership but it will result in regular payment of interest and the lenders are less interested in success of the company, so if the owner relay more on debt fund, it will enhance financial risk. On the other hand if capital is raised through equity, then large volume of fund can be raise for longer time period and the investors will be more interested in growth and success of the co mpany but there will be loss of ownership as the equity share holders have the voting right to participate in decision making process. Bonds investment tools provide flexible funding and appropriate for companies, and at this time business companies need many way for funding, because the business sector now is changeable (Fadak, T 2004). Buy and sell debt was one of the main reasons for the occurrence of the global financial crisis, because that we have to be careful (Almarshad, M 2009). In my opinion In this argument I agree with the first writer, because at this time the business sector has many challenges and we must provide appropriate solutions for problem especially the problem of funding. A. Raising capital from bond and equity markets 1. The initial public offering When a company is in need of capital, there are two options which will comprise the mix of its capital structure: one is debt, and the other is equity. If the company chooses to raise capital from equity financing, there are also various options. One of these options include raising capital from financial markets such as the stocks market either through seasoned offering or a new issue, most commonly known as the initial public offering (Lee, I et al. 1996). The initial public offering takes place when a company decides to issue stocks that is available for the public's investors (Strategies for raising equity capital, 2003). The company employs underwriters-investment banks that first buy the securities from the issuing corporation and re-selling it to the investors-at-large (Szewczyk, H. S. et al. 1991). Underwriters usually help the issuing company to prepare the prospectus, which is a document that describes the company as well as its prospects. A lot of practitioners as well as academicians regard IPOs as one of the most costly ways to raise equity capital. IPOs are required, by law to be registered in the Securities and Exchange Commissions (Gay, K 1999). The issuing company pays for administrative and legal fees, which are part of the IPO registration (Lee, H. W. et al. n.d). 2. Seasoned equity

Duty of Care and Contractual Agreements in Architecture

Duty of Care and Contractual Agreements in Architecture Section 1 Clearly explain what particular requirements must be in place for a Contract to exist between two parties? For a contract to exist between two parties there must be evidence of three key principles. An intention between all involved parties to form a legally binding relationship. A consideration (usually monetary) for the agreement. The offer and acceptance of the stated agreement. The intention of a legally binding relationship from each party must be formal; a moral obligation alone is insufficient. As such, articles such The Memorandum of Agreement outline the requirements of parties when intending to enter a contract. For a contract to exist the promise must be enforceable with a consideration. It is the party who provides this bargain who enforces the contract. Once a consideration is provided, all parties are drawn into privity of contract. The consideration is decided by the parties involved and the level of adequacy is irrelevant, it must be offered and accepted for the agreement to mature into a contract. As such, an offer without an acceptance is merely a pre-contractual agreement, not binding in law. In any case, for a contract to exist all terms of the offer must be accepted and a consideration provided. However, there is no requirement for a written document for most types of contract. An oral contract is legally binding providing there has been acceptance of an offer. From a legal stand-point, difficulty can be avoided if documentary evidence is provided of an agreement. The four corners rule allows a contract to be recorded and subsequently is easier to enforce in law. Explain what is meant by the term Duty of Care and what are the implications upon the architect? A duty of care is a legal obligation in tort law imposed on the Architect requiring they exercise a standard of reasonable care and diligence whilst carrying out professional work that could foreseeably harm others. Any failure in an Architects duty of care can result in an action in negligence where they become liable in tort law. Furthermore, a duty of care is also applicable in agency outside of any contractual arrangement. It is not required that a duty of care be defined by law, however, it often develops through the jurisprudence of common law. In this respect, a duty of care can be interpreted as a formalisation of the social contract and implicit responsibilities of the individual towards others in society. It is an ARB requirement that Architects adhere to the established standards of the profession and exercise due skill, care and diligence,whilst carrying out professional work within agreed time-frames and without unnecessary delay. For a duty of care to be breached, the following must be true: Harm must be reasonably foreseeable of the defendants conduct. A relationship of proximity between the defendant and the claimant. It must be fair, just and reasonableto impose liability. Explain the term Joint and Several Liability and how does it impact upon particular forms of architectural Practice? Under Joint and Several Liability, a client may pursue an obligation against any single party as if they were jointly liable. The responsibility then passes to the defendants who must establish their respective percentages of liability and monetary payment. Therefore, if a claimant pursues a single defendant and receives all the damages, that defendant must then pursue the other libelous parties to obtain contributions proportionate to their share of liability. Joint and Several liability is most relevant in tort claims and most often invoked in cases of negligence. Architects seek to establish a clear and properly defined agreement with specific reference to the understanding and expectations of the client. These agreements provide an assured basis on which the commission can be undertaken. Furthermore, the chosen form of appointment will determine the limit of the Architects liability and accountability. Architects also seek to limit their risk and liability through their chosen form of architectural practice. For Example, Limited Liability Partnerships and Companies cannot be jointly or several liable with its members liability determined by their stakehold in the partnership or shareholding in the company. Explain what is meant by the term Lean Construction. Lean construction is a method of designing production systems to minimize the time, effort and material waste of a project to generate the maximum amount of value. The process itself is derived from the lean production system within the manufacturing industry. It is fundamental that the production system is designed through a collaboration of project participants (Client, Architect, Engineer, Contractor, Building Owner) at the earliest stages of the project. It is based on the premise that desired ends affect the means to achieve these ends, and that available means will affect realized ends. The principles of Lean Construction are as follows: Allow value to flow by systematically removing obstacles to value creation and dispensable processes that create no value. Optimisation of the system through collaboration and systematic learning. Priority on delivering the Client/End-user/Building Owners expected value. Creating Pull Production. The pursuit of perfection/continual improvement, involving everyone in the system. Lean construction supplements traditional construction management by considering material and information flow, focusing on the enhancement of the production systems value generation. Therefore, a project using the Lean Construction method should: Deliver maximum functionality. Benefit end-users with the lowest optimum cost of ownership. Eliminate the inefficiency and waste in the use of labour and materials. Involve specialist suppliers in design from the beginning to achieve integration and buildability. Establish performance and improvement achievements by measurement. Use a single point of contact for effective co-ordination and clear responsibility. Explain and define what is meant by a Letter of Intent. What are the circumstances under which it may be issued, what may be its objectives and what are the principal matters that it should contain? A Letter of Intent is a document that outlines an agreement between two or more parties before the agreement is finalised. They resemble written contracts but are not legally binding for the parties involved. However, letters of intent can contain provisions that are legal binding such as a covenant to negotiate in good faith, non-disclosure agreements and stand-still provisions that promise exclusive negotiation rights. It can also be interpreted as binding if it resembles a formal contract too closely. Therefore, the letter of intent is enforceable by the courts both in terms of the remuneration and the act. However, the letter of intent is not a contract; instead it is a unilateral agreement in which one party confirms an intention to enter a contract with another party. Most importantly, it must contain an instruction to act and confirmation of a consideration as payment. Letters of intent are usually issued to: Clarify the nature of complex transactions for the convenience of the parties involved. Provide safeguards in case of collapsed negotiations. Officially declare interest or intent. Allow work to continue quickly based on trust. Architects mainly use letters of intent for the purpose of negotiation. For example, following the first stage of tender, a letter of intent maybe issued to inform a contractor of their approval based on their proposal. The contractor can then contribute to the design before the second stage of tendering by providing detailed pricings and an overall building cost. Once the second stage of tendering is complete, a formal contract can be established between the parties. What are the principal factors that determine the choice of a particular contract form? To determine the most appropriate contract form, the Architect and client must first consider the priorities of the project in terms of time, cost and quality. These three factors are linked through a trade-off paradigm: Time results in increased cost and decreased quality. Cost results in increased time and decreased quality. Quality results in increased cost and increased time. They are all related and inter-dependant. If time is the priority, then the procurement method must allow sufficient time to consider all of the design issues properly at the pre-contract stage. The client is afforded predictability and additional time can be saved by allowing the contractor to resource their own materials, effective management, real-time planning and overlapping detailed design phases with actual construction. If cost is the priority, then a financial limit must be established that a contract sum cannot exceed. Certainty of cost is dependant upon comprehensive design, drawings and specification that accurately assesses cost at the tender stage. If quality is the priority, the issue and degree of quality in the finished building must be clearly defined and established from the outset through a specification. Also, the measure of quality must also be defined. The choice of contract type is also directly related to the chosen type of procurement. Each type of procurement type uses standard contract forms that are known and accepted by the industry. Most architects choose to use these standard forms as they are comprehensive, address common construction situations and take account of current legal decisions. Factors such as the complexity, size and overall value of the project may also inform the procurement route or contract type. In all situations the Architect as the lead consultant has the duty to advise the client of the long-term implications of their decisions. Section 2 The Design and Build process of procurement has been endorsed by the Public Sector as the preferred procurement option, on the basis that it is claimed that it offers certainty of contract sum and brings certain cost benefits. Consider and discuss the merits or otherwise of this approach in comparison with the Traditional method of procurement with particular reference to the role of the architect. (70 marks). Design and Build is a procurement method for project delivery whereby an individual contractor is contractually responsible for both the design and construction of a project. In recent years, the public-sector has moved towards Design and Build as the chosen procurement path as opposed to the traditional, three-party arrangement where design and construction are separately contracted. The public-sectors interest in Design and Build can be attributed to several potential benefits that are not always obtainable through alternative procurement methods. The following points outline the advantages. The Design and Build procurement route provides a single source of responsibility as the contractor is singularly responsible for any defect in both the construction and design of the project. This is of particular benefit to the building owner or client, who does not have to define whether such defects are brought about by a deficiency in design or construction. Instead, the contractor is jointly and severly liable for the complete works. In a traditional contract, it is the client who must first determine the nature and cause of a problem, before deciding whether it is the designer or contractor who is at fault. Design and Build is also a popular route for the public-sector client as the contractor is obliged to bear any additional cost that results from inadequate or defective plans provided by the design team. In a traditional contract, the client warrants the sufficiency of the plans and as such is liable for any increased cost because of inadequate design. In the Design and Build contract, it is the contractor who is responsible for the projects design as well as the construction. They are hired to meet the clients specific performance specifications rather than merely construct the building as in the traditional contract procurement. Hence, if the plans are inadequately drafted or designed, the contractor is unable to seek compensation from the client. It is widely recognised that Design and Build contracts enable a project to be completed within a shorter time-period than the traditional three-party arrangement. The interface between the designer and contractor, often adversarial in the traditional method, can become more open and hence foster a more co-operative arrangement and exchange of ideas that can make the project a faster process. Time savings are also made by fast-tracking construction of known elements before the specifications and drawings of unknown elements are complete. The phased-nature of the design essentially allows work to commence on site whilst the later phases of the project are still being designed. The same time-savings are unable to be made within a traditional contract as the contractor does not usually even submit a tender, let alone start work on-site, before the design and drawings of the Architect are finalised. The responsibility for meeting local controls such as planning, bylaws and legislation is placed with the contractor, which usually results in increased efficiency. The phased nature of the Design and Build method also allows the contractor to have increased control of the project and can result in lower costs for the client. The specific control of detailed design enables the contractor to use familiar construction methods and materials which increase the efficiency of the build process. By staggering the construction process, the contractor is able to order materials for upcoming phases, ahead of time and at a lower cost. The savings made on labour, materials and time are all passed on to the benefit of the client. It is considered that the Design and Build method reduces the requirement for independent professional representation. Public sector clients often prefer to limit the number of points of contact to restrict the amount of time, effort and in-house staff it requires to undertake a project. Often it will use Design and Build in conjunction with privatisation, whereby it contracts an independent party to undertake responsibilities previously held by the Government, such as land acquisition, project finance, design, construction, operation and ownership. This method, in its most complete form is represented by the turnkey and package deal options, whereby the client is uninvolved for the majority of the project and presented with the completed building. However, it is desirable to have an independent third party (usually an Architect) for the purpose of quality control. Without a third party, the contractor, who is hired to complete the project promptly and economically, also has the task of assessing the quality and quantity of its own work. Hence, the contractor has a potential conflict of interest and is likely to reduce quality in order to satisfy the clients other requirements. With the presence of a third-party, the client/owners interests are represented during the design and construction. Clients choose Design and Build contracts as usually a fixed price and contract sum can be negotiated. The client specifies the maximum price it is willing to pay for the project before it solicits a proposal from the Design and Build contractor for its specifications, configuration and materials. However, difficulty can arise when there is an increase in the cost of work and construction. The contractor can sometimes abuse the situation by recouping costs in other areas of the project and without a third party, the client finds it far more difficult to detect and control such situations than in a traditional contact form. Therefore, most Design and Build contracts are lump-sum and fixed price, but payments are completed on a cost-plus basis to facilitate potential increases in cost. Also, payments tend to be dependant on the achievement of project milestones. This allows the contractors progress to be measured and assessed by the client, allowing easier negotiation in terms of compe nsation where costs have significantly increased under a fixed-price contract. However, the Design and Build route is not without potential problems. Many architects, clients, building owners and contractors have varying opinions about the successes of this procurement type. The following points are amongst the potential disadvantages to using Design and Build in the public-sector. If a public-sector client chooses the Design and Build procurement path it is difficult to actively compare preliminary proposals from multiple contractors. The contractor is only responsible for satisfying the clients performance specification; therefore the designs may be wide-ranging in aesthetic and prioritise different issues depending on the contractors individual stand-point. As in the turnkey approach, the client or eventual building owner has little input into the design and final appearance of the building and as such, may be unsatisfied with the result. Also, as the contract is entered into by negotiation rather than competitive tendering, the client may not always achieve the lowest cost for the building. Therefore, unlike the traditional route, if a client wants to attract multiple preliminary proposals, they must provide an individual consideration for each contractor that submits a design package. This is a cost often overlooked in debating the value of Traditional vs. Design and Build procurement, as these fees are separated from the contract sum in the case of Design and Build. Another problem with tendering a Design and Build contract is the potential for the building to become a competition in under-design. Contractors will seek to meet the clients outline requirements whilst sacrificing quality, life-span, ease of maintenance, and value in a bid to offer the minimum price. In placing responsibility for both the design and construction in the contractors hands, the client forfeits control. Therefore the client has little input in assessing sub-standard work, claiming for variations, debating extensions of time or even using a termination clause due to excessive delay. To combat against this, it is again advisable to use a third-party design professional who can check the value and realism of the tendered bid. However, the monetary and time savings inherent to Design and Build contracts then become nominal as the time-period and expertise needed by the third-party to check the work of the contractor is both expensive and time-consuming. Such a third party can be appointed independently by the client, or be appointed through consultant switch or novation if they are the original designer/design team. Also, contractors seek to recoup the outlay of unsuccessful tenders with their successful tenders; therefore, the client will always pay a small premium for the work of their chosen contractor. Another disadvantage to the Design and Build arrangement is the difficulty of obtaining long-term contractual protection in terms of the suitability of the work. Many contractors use contracts where such insurance is prohibitively expensive and resultantly, commercially unviable for the client. Therefore, it is the clients responsibility to be aware of the extent of coverage of the contractors liability insurance. In the event of a defect in the design or construction of the project, the client may be unable to recuperate anything if the contractors insurance coverage or assets are insufficient to pay compensation, regardless of whether liability can be determined. Public sector clients often choose the Design and Build procurement route as the available financial resources of a contractor are normally greater than that of the professional individual or architectural practice, in the event of a post-completion failure. A potential problem with liability can arise when the Design and Build contractor hires an Architect as a sub-consultant. Most contractors professional indemnity insurance does not cover damages caused by defective design or specifications prepared by the Architect. Conversely, the Architects professional indemnity insurance does not cover damages caused by defective labour, materials or operations during the contractors construction process. Therefore, the contractor offers a warranty for an agreed (but usually limited) time-period based on the notion of negligence. However, the commercial and financial pressures of the Design and Build contract compel the contractor to essentially under-design the building as far as possible making failures within the building an increased likelihood. As a result, there is often a need for litigation to define whether the economy of the project surpasses the expected level of professional responsibility at the time of design and construction. Therefore in order to protect their building, the client should seek to obtain a warranty that guarantees the completed building is suitable for its intended purpose, regardless of defects incurred by the contractor. In the public sector, Design and Build contracts are usually awarded on subjective criteria such as value, experience and qualification. The public sector in particular has developed contractor evaluation and selection policies that try to mitigate against the risk of such subjective judgments. In many cases this is achieved by awarding contracts based on a point-scoring system with the highest scorer being appointed. However, this discretional points system implemented by public managers offers little objectivity in determining the adequate point allocation for individual elements of the proposed scheme. For instance, there is hardly any way to decide whether one contractors foundation system warrants 20 points or a different contractors warrants 22, it is completely subjective. Also the criteria used for marking generally do not relate to the specific building type, therefore analysing a contractors qualifications and experience presents a measure of competence but does not guarant ee a successful project outcome. There is also difficulty in reasonably comparing alternative design proposals in an effort to determine which represents the best value. For example, some contractors may offer higher quality plumbing whilst others offer better electrical systems. Therefore it is impossible to draw reasonable conclusions from dissimilar bids in terms of which proposal offers best value. Often, value can only be determined after the building has been completed. In conclusion, public owners look for procurement systems that meet the needs of the public whilst mitigating against legal problems and reducing administrative burden. The public-sector has favoured the Design and Build approach as the client can guarantee a total fixed project cost early in the process and the building can be constructed in a shorter time-period with more efficiency than other procurement systems. The contract type also allows an exploration of new solutions through an open dialogue between architect and contractor, in which the public benefit from the innovation and lower costs. As a result, the public-sectors involvement with Design and Build has increased over recent years. Fundamentally, the public requires its construction projects to be durable, environmental, functional and most importantly, fit for purpose. At the same time, it expects the government funded projects to represent good value and be economic in nature. Therefore, the public itself has little involvement or interest in which procurement system is utilised, however, they expect each project to fulfill its stated requirements within its allocated budget. It is the view of the public-sector, that Design and Build is the system best equipped to meet the publics expectations and provide the most transparent value for projects that are ultimately funded by the tax-payer. Bibliography Lupton S. Architects Job Book. (RIBA Enterprises 7th ed.) Chappell D Wills A. The Architect in Practice. (Blackwell Publishing 10th ed.) ARB. Architects Code: Standards of Conduct and Practice. (November 2002) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_and_Build http://www.lao.ca.gov/2005/design_build/design_build_020305.htm

Overrepresentation Of Ethnic Minorities Essay

Overrepresentation Of Ethnic Minorities Essay The overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the Criminal Justice System looks like this: in 79.6 of arrests in 2009-10 those who were involved classified their ethnicity as white (Race and the CJS, 2010). In 2010 the rates for indictable offences were higher for white persons at 81% than for ethnic minorities, 74% for black and 77% for Asians (Race and the CJS, 2010). However, statistics show that ethnic minorities are overrepresented at all stages of the Criminal Justice System. In 2009 Black people made up 2.7% of the population aged 10 and above but represented 8.0% of those arrested in England and wales, while Asians made up of 5.6% of the population aged 10 and above and represented 5.6% of those arrested in England and wales (Race and the CJS, 2010). As ethnic minorities they are more likely to be stopped and searched by police, this leads to a greater probability of arrests and in turn may influence the way their cases are dealt with as they progress through the subsequent stages of the criminal justice process. They are less likely to be given unconditional bail, and more likely to be remanded in custody than white offenders. In 2010 a higher percentage of ethnic minorities (Black 27%, Asian 29%, other 42%) were sentenced to immediate custody for indictable offences than whites (23%) (Race and the CJS, 2010). Ethnic minorities are also more likely to receive punitive sentences than white people and are overrepresented in aspects of certain crimes such as robbery, drug offences and -in some areas- firearms offences. Ethnic minorities are also more likely to be the victims of crimes. It was seen in the British crime survey 2010-11 that the risk of being a victim of crime was higher for all ethnic minorities than white groups (Race and the CJS, 2010). Over a period of 5 years the risk of being a victim of crime from the white group had significantly fallen by 8.0% while the decrease in the risk of being a victim of crime from ethnic groups was not stati stically significant. It is apparent that there are also variations in the overrepresentation of different groups within the ethnic minority category and also between gender, patterns and levels of offending also vary significantly (Race and the CJS, 2010). To narrow this down this research, the essay will focus mainly on the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, even though it is recognised that those of Asian background are only slightly overrepresented in the prison population in comparison to those of black background. It does not mean there is no need to inquire on whether they too suffer discrimination in the Criminal Justice System or not (Gabbidon, 2010). According to the Race Relations Act 1976, segregating against a person based on racial grounds means treating them less favourably than they should be treated; it is therefore illegal to discriminate through delivery of goods, facilities or services to the public based on racial grounds (John, 1987). This, however, does not apply to officials representing the Crown as they are exercising powers to exclude or punish. Judges are therefore immune when acting in judicial capacity; this means the act does not apply to the se ntencing of offenders in the courts (Gabbidon, 2010). There have been disputes to have this taken out of legislation for it is argued that those in law enforcement who have the power to strip an individual of their freedom and liberty should act in respect of racial origins of the defendant (Michael, 1989). This helps to ensure justice as well as confidence of ethnic minorities in the legal system. Ethnic minorities are also seen to be discriminated against by courts; they are much more severely dealt with when it comes to sentences received in courts, more likely to be sent to prison than whites who have committed the same offence (Hood, 1992). To be able to find out whether sentencing is affected by race and if discrimination does exist it would have to be evident that when all relevant legal variables are taken into account, a higher number of ethnic minorities are given a custodial sentence and/or a longer sentence (Marian, 1991). A strategy to address this overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in sentencing is needed to bring together departments and find ways to reduce it. The aim of this research essay is to look at literature and establish whether patterns of sentencing among ethnic minorities differ in a significant way from patterns of sentencing among whites. It will also look at the nature and extent of the variation in sentencing -if any at all- what might cause the variation and any available solution strategies. The research question that will be investigated will then be: Does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System? It seems almost unjust to answer such a research question without assessing public opinion on the sentencing process and its relation to race as it can be assumed that their opinions are important even though not directly (Hough, 1998). The significance of public opinion can be seen for example in the observation that was made by the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Bingham. He observed that it would not seem right for a judge to ignore any public opinion when in court. Similarly the late and former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher noted the importance of the incorporation of public opinions in the sentencing debate (Hough, 1998). To explore the public opinions on the role of race in the sentencing processes of the Criminal Justice System a questionnaire was distributed to a small sample. The questionnaire helped to explore such a potentially sensitive topic about race and sentencing, especially because the questionnaires were anonymous and completed in private. Key points were identified th at were used in the construction of the questions (see appendix 1 for questionnaire guide) these included available sentencing options for ethnic minorities, imprisonment for different types of offences, sentence leniency and sentencing length. This would shine light on the public opinions and whether or not pressure from these opinions affects the decision making in the sentencing process of the Criminal Justice System and how this decision is influenced by the race of the defendant. LITERATURE REVIEW Since the growth of ethnic minorities in Britain with its peak in the 1990s the interest in their progress has increased. The largest share of ethnic minorities was those who classified themselves as black or Indian (Gabbidon, 2010). The growth of ethnic minorities was not widely accepted and the resistance towards them was shown through racism and violence. Not only were ethnic minorities the victims of these attacks but they were also first to be arrested and sentenced for the same attacks (Gabbidon, 2010). The overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in crime and justice can be seen in early history, for example through the work of Frederick McClintocks crimes of violence (1963), which studies violent crimes and finds that the conviction rate of black people increases by 13% in a span of 10 years (McClintock,1963). This helps to inform the research question as it talks about the history of race and discrimination. It is important to investigate the procedure that occurs when an individual is to be sentenced, when researching the effects of race on the differences in sentencing. This is made clear by Bowling and Phillips (2002), when they note that once a suspect has been charged with an offence at the police station, their case file is sent to the crown prosecution service (CPS) in order that they can make the decision about whether to proceed to court with the case or to terminate the case in which case the defendant does not have to attend court or face criminal charges. Shaun L. Gabbidon draws from this further and claims it is from this that the factors that play a role in such a decision can be determined. According to Gabbidon it is hard to determine that race affects or plays a role in this decision as the race of the defendants is not disclosed (Gabbidon 2010). Showing that race might not be central in this decision. However, even though race might not have an influence at this stage, it is clear to others such as Hood (1992), Mhlanga (1997) and Banks (1999) that race does affect prosecution, sentencing and legal representation. The sentencing process is one of the important stages of the Criminal Justice System, not only is an important decision to be made but this is also how justice is seen as being done (Ashworth, 1983). It is, therefore, important to consider the races of the judges themselves, which in England and Wales are predominantly white. This leads to immediate assumptions that ethnic minorities are then automatically at a disadvantage (Mathews, 2009). Research into this issue may show little bias in race and sentencing, but it is argued that if previous offences and the seriousness of the case are considered, ethnic minorities are most likely to get a harsher sentence (Blumstein, 1982). Ethnic minorities are seen to be very similar, for example when it comes to social economic characteristics and this may be seen as affecting and/or influencing the sentencing decision. This can be seen in a study conducted by Imogen Brown and Roy Hullin (1992). They looked at the decision-making process of over 3,000 defendants, from this they discovered that over 50% of the black defendants were unemployed, this being more than double that of white or Asian defendants was seen as influencing the decision (Brown and Hullin, 1992). The inquiry on the role race has on sentencing is enlarged in the study by Roger Hood (1992). Hood wanted to find out the race effect of sentencing and to do so he looked at 2,884 defendants who appeared in different Crown Courts in the West Midlands. The study was set to identify the variation in sentencing for each ethnic group through multivariate analysis on the basis of 15 variables that were selected. Hoods findings were unsurprising in relation to previous research; he found that the racial difference in sentencing was less than what might have been assumed. He found that only 5% of blacks were more likely to be given a custodial sentence than whites and that 80% of the overrepresentation of black offenders who were in prison were there due to the severity of their offences and not their race. He also found that most ethnic minorities opted the crown court and pleaded not guilty, this however, meant that when found guilty they were more likely to get a harsher sentence (Hood, 1992). It is important however, not to take these findings at face value as hoods study faced a lot of issues both methodologically and theoretically. Representation of this research was also a problem due to the sentencing differences between the courts that were investigated (Hood, 1992). For example Birmingham Crown Court, which had the largest percentage of the whole sample, the chance of a black offender to be given a custodial sentence was one in three; while in Dudley Crown Court the chance was one in two. This means if most of the distribution of cases had been from Dudley Crown Court and not Birmingham Crown Court the results would have been more racially biased (Hood, 1992). The methodological issues resulted mainly from the prediction scale used and its accuracy of only 75 per cent and their risk of custody score which could only include relevant factors and in so doing leaving out important factors such as unemployment (Hood, 1992). Hood himself admitted that he did not aim to provide a general or casual explanation but wants to make sure that the reasons for these differences in treatment between ethnic minorities and whites should remain open to speculation (Spalek, 2008). Although the numbers might be small, Hood did manage to show that discrimination in the crown court exists, both direct (for example through bail decisions, the rate of sentencing and sentence imposed) and indirect (for example through the decision to plead not guilty and social inquiry reports) (Spalek, 2008). It is clear that previous research on race and sentencing tends to focus on the role of the courts and the judges and how they make their decisions. Referencing the work of Hood brings the purpose of this research into context. The research explored public opinions on the role that race plays in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System. Those being researched were approached and informed about the topic of the questionnaire and were prompted to participate (volunteer sampling) this potentially included participants with a variation in gender and age who were interested in and had an opinion about the role of race in the sentencing process of the Criminal Justice System. Research into race and sentencing like those referenced above and others alike bring up concerns about some of the questions left unanswered about the topic. Many of the research findings on race and sentencing have issues -for example methodological and theoretical issues and concerns this results in the difficulty to prove that a relationship between race and the sentencing decision exists (Spalek, 2008). This research will try to contribute to the closure of this gap, by focusing on the attitudes and opinions of the public about their views on the topic. To have a better and deeper understanding of the research findings, the research will be drawing on some theoretical concepts. If discrimination against ethnic minorities does exist, in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, this could be due to prejudices that are difficult to remove (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). A prejudice is seen as an attitude that serves cognitive and emotional functions. Experience and knowledge is one of these functions, it is important for an individual to feel they know what they are doing and understand the world in which they do it in (Anderson and Taylor, 2007), in this case judges will most likely feel that convicting and sentencing ethnic minorities just because they have been treated so in past cases shows their understanding of the world and how things work. Second is the instrumental function which is associated with rewards and punishments (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). An individual is then most likely to follow the attitudes of their preferred groups just so they could be rewarded in the case of judges for example for promotions and higher pay rolls. This type of discrimination can also be explained through Tajfels social identity theory (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). It talks about the importance of a positive self-image to the individual, and how they feel their social identity is enhanced by categorising people into groups, in and out cast groups. On the other hand, the discrimination against ethnic minorities in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System could be an exaggeration or a myth and this could be explained by the simple fact that ethnic minorities commit more serious crimes that are more likely to get convicted and sentenced compared to white offenders (Spalek, 2008). These factors could all play a part: areas and environment in which they grew up in, social and material deprivation, boundaries up the employment ladder and inadequate socialisation, just to name a few (Mathews, 2009). It is, therefore, evident that it is difficult to draw conclusions that race is the main explanation for the higher and harsher sentence rates of ethnic minorities as there are too many variables affecting the same decision. As race and sentencing are widely researched topics, it is important that their definitions are not assumed. In the questionnaires conducted, race was used in terms of being a system in which categories are created for humans based on their ethnic background (spalek, 2008). Ethnic minority will be used in relation to the different national or cultural traditions that a group has in comparison to the other population (spalek, 2008) in this case being whites, and the ethnic minorities will include blacks and Asians and those who classify themselves as other. Sentencing will include all types of convictions, ranging from custodial/prison sentences to community service. These words were used in this way in the analysis to narrow down and avoid any confusion. This made the topic easier to investigate. METHODS PARTCIPIANTS 15 questionnaires where completed for the purpose of this research; the questionnaires were obtained from individuals whose participation was entirely voluntary and they were not offered any compensation. The participants were approached in Coventry town centre and were asked to complete a questionnaire. Due to the nature of the topic the respondents were given the option to take the questionnaire home and complete it in private. They all varied in gender and age; however, no specifics were noted about their age or gender due to limited time and the low significance of the issue. Volunteer sampling was used, a type of non-probability sampling, through this the volunteers self-selected themselves into the questionnaire (Bryman, 2008). This ensured that those who volunteered to complete the questionnaire had a strong interest in the topic. This sampling method was also beneficial as it reveals important aspects and opinions of the population being sampled. Although this sampling method has questionable issues, especially with representation (Bryman, 2008), this was not much of a problem to the research as it was mainly for exploratory purposes. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES The method used closed-ended questionnaires. This was seen as the better choice at the time of research as these questionnaires would help to get responses from large quantities at a time with no interviewer effects (Seale, 2004). The research question does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System? Meant that topics to be addressed in the questionnaires would be sensitive and/or embarrassing to some, it was, therefore, easier to be addressed through an anonymous questionnaire (Babbie, 2010). In using questionnaires interviewer variability was avoided and the questionnaires also proved to be more convenient for respondents. The questions were constructed from guided topics (Blaxter, 2010). What was being explored was clear and this resulted in a better understanding of the questions and the questionnaires were then completed at a faster rate (see appendix 2 for questionnaire). After volunteers had shown interest on approach, they were brief ed on the purpose of the research, each volunteer was then informed that they could stop doing the questionnaire at any time and that the questionnaire would remain anonymous and they were reassured that their data would not be used against them, that their information would not be handed to third parties and would only be seen by an examiner. Some of the volunteers completed their questionnaires on the spot and some took them away and posted their responses. A one-week time frame was left for the questionnaires that were taken away; at the end of that week 15 questionnaires were gathered in total. Univariate analysis was used to analyse the questionnaires, this was used because it allowed the analysis of one variable at a time, frequency tables were then used to showcase the data and they were used in relation to all of the different types of variables by providing the number of people and the percentage belonging to each category for the variable being analysed (Bryman, 2008). For research such as this it is important to address some ethical considerations in order to collect good data (OLeary, 2004). In light of this the participants were reassured about the confidentiality of their responses. Participation was voluntary, this meant that informed consent was obtained and so participants understood the research and its i ntentions, and they were not being deceived in any way. FINDINGS AND EXPLANATIONS Results from the analysis of the questionnaires indicated that the public are not satisfied with court systems. The first question on the questionnaire asks respondents about their opinion on the type of job that some criminal justice professional do. Only 23 percent of respondents thought that judges were doing a good job; 48 percent thought that they were doing a fair job and 29 percent thought they were doing a poor job (see appendix 3). Judges received the worst evaluation in comparison to police officers, magistrates and prison officers. Police had the highest percentage of doing a good job at 70 per cent (see appendix 4) and magistrates and prison officers were in the middle with 50 per cent each (see appendix 5 and 6). These findings are supported by the theory of prejudices. According to the theory of prejudice, experience and knowledge are its main functions, it is important for an individual to know what they are doing and understand the world in which they do it in (Anders on and Taylor, 2007). By doubting the work that the judiciary does the public also doubts that the judges know what they are doing and whether or not they understand the world in which they work. Prejudice is hard to remove showing the difficulty in combating the negative opinions of the public. The respondents were then asked about their opinions about the leniency of the sentences that ethnic minorities received for certain crimes (robbery, drug offences and crime offences). Just over half thought that the sentences were too lenient (59 per cent) to some extent and just below half of the respondents (41 per cent) thought that the sentences were lenient enough. In comparison to the previous question it was discovered that about 90 per cent of those who thought judges were doing a poor job also thought that the sentences were too lenient (see appendix 7). This shows that the more judges were seen as being out of touch with society, the more they were seen as doing a poor job, therefore, giving lenient sentences to ethnic minorities. It was then important to establish whether or not the respondents knew about the types of sentences that were available. Respondents were asked to list as many sentencing options as they knew. It was evident that prison was the most widely known, this lack of knowledge of alternative sentences could explain why the public root for harsher sentences or imprisonment. There was limited knowledge of non-custodial sentences. Following prison were community service (70 per cent), fine (65 per cent) and probation (58 per cent). The least popular options included compensation (18 per cent), conditional charge (15 per cent) and electronic tagging (20 per cent) (see appendix 8). It is then clear that although the public are aware of some sentencing penalties, not all of them are known as a result not thought of when the public talk about sentencing. This lack of awareness of the different types of sentencing has significant consequences when trying to determine the role of race in the sentenci ng stages of the Criminal Justice System. The respondents were then questioned about 3 types of crime (robbery, drug and firearm offences). Respondents were asked to estimate that out of every 50 ethnic minorities that were convicted of any of these crimes, how many ended up in prison. Robbery had the highest estimates of individuals ending up in prison (45 out every 50), drug offences were not far off with estimates of 43 of every 50 and drug offences falling behind but not far off with estimates of 40 out of every 50 (see appendix 9). These results were inter-linked, those who estimated high numbers robbery did so too for the remaining categories and those who put slightly lower numbers for robbery also did so for the remaining two categories. The estimates about imprisonment also seemed to be related to the leniency of the sentences the offenders received. For example, the respondents who stated that the sentences were too lenient also put down lower estimates of imprisonment. This shows how unawareness about the sentenci ng practice can be a major source of the disappointment that the public experience about the judiciary. This could be explained by the theory of instrumental function which involves individuals following the attitudes of the groups in which they prefer for rewards rather than punishment (Anderson and Taylor, 2007). So the public, though being ignorant and having no idea about sentencing might still have negative opinions due to the simple fact that this is the view of their preferred group. Through this an individuals self-mage and social identity are seen as being more important (Tajfels social identity theory). REFLEXIVE ACCOUNT OF METHODS The purpose of the methods used was to collect information on public opinions about the process of sentencing and how this is affected by race. The questionnaire was used to collect direct information relating to the opinions of the public about the behaviour of certain people; it also looked at the basic opinions of a group of individuals in relation to the issue in question. The questionnaires were also used to collect information which can then be tracked over time to investigate any new changes (Bryman, 2008). Questionnaires were the choice of method mainly due to the sensitivity of the topic; it made it easy for participants to respond freely to the questions even though they might have felt uncomfortable about the topic (Bryman, 2008). This was because there was no interviewer available and the questions could remain anonymous and could also be completed in private if the respondents wished to do so. During the research the researcher was expected to perform certain duties in order to fulfil their role. Some of these included; taking the responsibility of finding out about what was expected of the research, taking the initiative in identifying any issues and problems, undertaking the recommended reading, producing the written work needed, consulting with tutors about any difficulties that are encountered when undertaking the work, generating ideas, setting realistic deadlines and ensure that the research meets with the required regulations (Babbie, 2010). To ensure credibility of this research, standardised instruments were used because they can be assessed in a direct way. These included objectivity and reliability which are positivist and quantitative constructs (Seale, 2004). Credibility is then achieved through objectivity because with the use of questionnaires the beliefs and values of the researcher could not have affected the results, meaning the findings could not depend on who did the research (Seale, 2004). It is important for researchers to maintain their distance from what they study. Credibility was also achieved through reliability because the questionnaire was close ended and standardised, this means the questionnaire can easily be repeated by different researchers and the chances of measurements being consistent are high. The need for credible research had an effect on the way the research was conducted because to ensure credibility certain guidelines needed to be followed and deviation from these was not permitted. As well as advantages, the method used had limitations and this may have affected the validity of the findings. For example the response rate was low (raising generalizability and representative issues), there was little to no control of who volunteered and completed the questionnaire (can lead to bias). The topic being researched is a complex one, the questionnaire failed to touch upon these complexities of the topic. The responses to the questions were limited and this meant that rich, in-depth and detailed information could not be gathered (Seale, 2004). To avoid these issues in future triangulation can be used, therefore the strengths of one method could make up for the short comings of the other and vice-versa. CONCLUSIONS It is clear that the role of race in certain stages of the Criminal Justice System such as sentencing is very important. From early history its evident that race plays some sort of role in the sentencing of ethnic minorities. The main focus has been on how the race of an individual can increase or decrease their sentence. Through the literature reviewed it is clear that race does influence the role of the sentencing decision making in the Criminal Justice System though not as large as anticipated. It shows that there are far too many variables to accurately study this process and come out with valid and representative results, either way some important variables are left out or irrelevant ones included. The research question: Does racial discrimination exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, is, therefore, answered, however, not with much significance. To take the research question further questionnaires were conducted to assess public opinion on the role of race in the sentencing possesses of the Criminal Justice System. The questionnaires were conducted on a voluntary basis and respondents self-selected themselves to participate. One of the main key findings was the publics dissatisfaction with the court system, it was also significant that those who stressed the poor quality of the execution of work with Criminal Justice professionals also stressed that sentences were too lenient and they were not severe enough, also high estimates of ethnic minority imprisonment were made in relation to specific crimes. Through this, it was concluded after the analysis of 15 questionnaires that most of the respondents had little or no knowledge of alternative types of sentencing and that this had major consequences when it came to the accuracy of their opinions about the role of race on sentencing decisions. The research question was then furth er informed, from the analysis of public opinions it can be argued that racial discrimination does exist in the sentencing stages of the Criminal Justice System, but to some extent. However, the sample was too small to draw any significant conclusions from the findings due to the issues associated with methodology and theory. If the opportunity was to arise, this study would be taken a step further; it would be expanded to include a larger and more representative sample. More respondents would give the opportunity to include a more generalizable sample and therefore result in more reliable and valid results about how race influences the sentencing decisions in the Criminal Justice System.

Virgin :: Renaissance Writing Essays Virginity

Virgin Virgin: Not yet touched, handled, or employed for any purpose; still undisturbed or unused; perfectly fresh or new (Oxford English Dictionary online, definition 16b). For the Renaissance writers, virginity was a precious ideal and a favorite theme. It went by many names: virtue, chastity, purity, maidenhead; but it signified that rare thing that was untouched, fresh, new. In a large sense, it was everything that the Old World of Europe ached and searched for: a new thing, the New World. Virginity was a thing men wanted to admire and treasure, but also to conquer and consume. And to the bearer, the virgin, it was an invaluable asset. Virginity is bounty, riches, and treasure. When European explorers first set foot on the ‘virgin soil’ of the Americas, they were awestruck by the profusion of life, resources, and beauty. This land, innocent of the European touch, "†¦ had many goodly woods full of deer, coneys, hares, and fowl, even in the midst of summer in incredible abundance (Barlow 1067)." The plowing of earth is often compared to the ‘tilling and sewing’ of a virgin woman. Sir Walter Raleigh (1064) explicitly employs this sexual metaphor when he writes "†¦ Guiana is a country that hath yet her maidenhead, never sacked, turned, nor wrought; the face of the earth hath not been torn †¦" Virginity is so admired that the word ‘virtue’ is a synonym for it. But in large part, it is prized only because of the difficulty of overcoming it. The deflowering of a girl or a new-found land is an exciting challenge to be surmounted. Raleigh goads his Queen to take the challenge of colonizing Guiana when he writes of her: "For whatsoever prince shall possess it shall be greatest, †¦ shall hereby hear the name of a virgin which is †¦ able to †¦ invade and conquer so great empires so far removed (1066)." While virginity retained leaves the suitor unsatisfied, it does likewise to the virgin. This mutual yearning and frustration seems to drive Renaissance writers to new heights of poetic expression. For example, Stella reassures Astrophil that, while she must make him wait, she too burns with passion: "Trust me while I thee deny, In myself the smart I try, †¦ (Sidney 993)" In Shakespeare’s first sonnet, he laments that his would-be lover, by denying him, is "Making a famine where abundance lies, Thyself thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel (1169).

Spanish El Recado :: Papers

Spanish El Recado Analasis de El Recado Elena Poniatowska escrita durante una epoca de cambio en Mexico. Antes de sus obras las mujeres mexicanas eran sometidos, docil, y pasivo. En la tiempo de sus obras las mujeres estaba tratando salir de los estereotipos de antes. Esta problema social tomo un afecto en Elena. Aunque ella no viene de un movimiento literatura directamente, ella escrita con el concepto de compremetido. En su narrative El Recado ella crea un mujer estereotipical que no puede controlar sus emociones. La titula es eso porque ella viene a ver su amante, pero el no esta, asi ella escribe las cosas que sentia. La perspectiva es de un personaje y ella nunca interacta con otros personajes. En facto la unica descripcion de un personaje otro de la protagonista es de su amante Martin. Habla de otros personajes, pero solamente de sus acciones. Porque ellas es la unica perspectiva que tenemos es sencillo a sentar compasion para una protagonista de quien nombre no aun sabemos. Ella da la descripcion de toda que vea, y mas importante todo que se sienta. Tambien tropos y figuras retoricas dan un tono significante al poema. Estos sentimientos de la portagonista y el tono emocional de la narrativa transporta una tema de una mujer estereotipical y debil quien quiere ser reconocido. El Recado es un cuento de la esperanza y amor. La protagonista viene a visita Martin, pero el no esta en su casa. Entonces ella esperas en peldano, y esperanza que el aparece pronto. Esperanza es una palabra muy importante en el cuento. La palabra es usado directamente tres veces en la obra 26, 31, y 39. Tambien en el principio de el cuento todo es de un afecto sensual. Mientras ella esta en el peldano vea el jardin de Martin. Da caracteristicas humanos (personificacion) a los flores en el jardin ( 6-7), estos caracteristicas como honesto y graves probablamente tambien de su amante. Luego ella hace una comparacion directa entre el y el jardin â€Å"Todo el jardin es solido, es como tu, tiene una reciedumbre que inspira confianza.† Este oracion no solamente tiene un simil, pero tambien ayuda en mostrando la comparacion a un mujer de un hombre. El hombre es personificado con palabras de fuerza, mientras todo el cuento muestra una mujer debil.

Gen200 Personal Responsibility Essay

Personal Responsibility The pathway to successful future begins with taking a close look at the ability to commit and be accountable for all actions even when no one is looking. Making the right decision and understanding that there will be challenges along the way can definitely prepare the body and mind to readily face them head on. The personal responsibility of an individual plays an important role to reach the ultimate goal to be successful. Personal responsibility pertains to our ability to discipline ourselves as well as taking a responsible approach and ownership on our career, education, family and most of all our actions.I believe that personal responsibility is vital to academic achievement of an individual because it can exercise self-efficacy, helps to recognize problems easily and manages time effectively to achieve success and happiness. There are many other factors in life that are struck by the effects of personal responsibility, but only a few are highly significant and usually kicks off the rest of the constructive effects. Establishing a relationship between personal responsibility and academic endeavor is very significant because it forms a ground rule to move forward and accept the reality of a decision made and what is destined to happen.Receiving an education is a choice, therefore it is our personal responsibility to make sure that we can meet the academic demand require. A strong sense of self-efficacy supports that responsibility because it can somehow motivate us to move on and challenge our way to academic success because we believe in our ability to reach our goal. Self-efficacy is an individual‘s perceived capabilities to attain designated types of performances and to achieve specific results (Pajares, 1996; Tella & Ayeni, 2006).When we accept responsibility for our own actions we can easily recognize and overcome the tests that are bound to happen along the way. Our positive outlook strengthens our confidence and definitely boosts our self-worth because it encourages us to be more responsible. We have to be careful however on instilling boosts of high expectations or beliefs, the effects can be very disappointing when it is not fully realized. The focus should be on realistic capabilities and potentials so that we can appreciate success in terms of self-development rather than achievements (Bandura, A 1994).Acknowledging responsibility helps to take control of daily life. Another factor that needs a great sense of responsibility is time management. Overwhelming schedule managing education, career, household and other activities can definitely put a person in a bind if schedule is not well planned. When there is a set objective and commitment to achieve that goal, a clear sense of direction in life must be established as well. Setting preliminary goal as well as short and long term goal can definitely put some perspective to how an individual wants to accomplish that objective.With that in mind, time m anagement will be effortless knowing what can be done now and what to accomplish later. A permit for any adjustments on any unforeseen challenges can be detected and easily resolve because commitment and responsibility makes a stand to face any setback and move on to continue the raise to success. A person can manage time effectively because of accountability and the will to accept responsibility for any actions, knowing that there will be consequences. So in order for me to be successful in every aspect of my life, I need to manage time effectively.Well managed time sees the possibilities of new opportunities and helps you create want you want in future. Here is my preliminary plan for this school year: Preliminary plan: 1. Set my short and long term goal. 2. Read on my syllabus and take note of important projects and due dates 3. Prioritize and organize my schedule according to my work and scheduled assignments and required readings. 4. Schedule time to be online and work on DQâ⠂¬â„¢s and assignments. 5. Schedule learning team discussion and assignments In keeping personal responsibility intact and focused, there is no doubt that challenges are bound to happen.Successful status academically, professionally and life in general will always present extreme encounters along the way, testing how strong the concentration and motivation devoted to the goal. Another important factor why responsibility is essential in daily academic life is learning to recognize challenges. Any challenges does not have to set us back, perhaps they should motivate us to be more proactive and ready to face these challenges head on. The quicker any problem is resolve, the quicker to move on and refocus on all the academic requirements and accomplish them right away.As we anticipate and accept that there will be hurdles then we can easily adjust to the situation and find a reasonable resolution. In order to race to academic success, I must remain motivated and focus on the big picture all the way through finish line and graduate. With a sensible practice of personal responsibility I believe I can tackle the duties to achieve my objectives. Establishing a relationship between personal responsibility and academic endeavor is very significant because it forms a ground rule to move forward and accept the reality of a decision made and what is destined to happen.Having the freedom to make the choices, plans and organize to be successful academically gives me the power to do what is right and accept any failures and easily move on with an effective strategy that will lead me to the ultimate goal to successfully graduate. References Pajares, F. (1996). Self efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research Tella, A. , & Ayeni, C. O. (2006). The impact of self-efficacy and prior computer experience on the creativity of new librarians in South West, Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice , 8 (2). Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V.S. Ramachaudra n (Ed. Annotated Bibliography Pajares, F. (1996). Self efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research The article aims to examine self-efficacy and findings made by Bandura’s (1986) in study of self-motivation and taking control of academic aspirations. The summary of discoveries in the relationship of self-efficacy and academic performances which validates measures that match up with personal responsibility. Tella, A. , & Ayeni, C. O. (2006). The impact of self-efficacy and prior computer experience on the creativity of new librarians in South West, Nigeria.Library Philosophy and Practice , 8 (2). This is good resource regarding the study on the impact of self-efficacy prior to computer experience of librarians from Nigeria. The study involves a number of new librarians that are independent and dependent variables. The outcome of the study presented that self-efficacy and computer experience has a major impact on creativity. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-ef ficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed. ), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed. ], Encyclopedia of mental health.San Diego: Academic Press, 1998). This a great reference regarding self-efficacy beliefs and processes regulating emotional states and reactions. Talks about level of motivation reflected in choices and actions. The discussions on the use of influences over a person’s own impulse, thoughts and emotional situations as well as performance on given task. Insights on the development and exercise of self-efficacy over the lifespan. http://www. schoolsucks. com/paper/Academic-Personal-Responsibility/16640. html http://www. des. emory. edu/mfp/BanEncy. html http://www. des. emory. edu/mfp/PajaresSE1996. html